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Survival of Gould's Turkey
Transplanted into the Galiuro
Mountains, Arizona
Brian F. Wakeling 1
Abstract.-Gould's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo mexicana) were
captured near Yecora, Sonora, Mexico, radio-marked, disease
tested, and free-released into the Galiuro Mountains, Arizona,
during the winter of 1994 and 1997. No diseases were detected. I
examined the survival rates of turkeys following these releases to
determine if age, gender, or holding time influenced survival.
Survival rates did not differ among age and gender classes, but
were lower for all age and gender classes within the first 2-3
months following release. No age, gender, or holding time class
survived at rates superior to any others. I recommend that turkey
transplants into habitats that expect high initial mortality should
have even age and gender ratios to maximize probability of
success. Translocation time should be reasonable and prudent so
that periods of captivity in which turkeys lack food and water are
minimized. The number of turkeys released into a habitat should
be large enough so that a substantial number will survive the
period of initial high mortality. Additional releases may be
needed in subsequent years to establish self-sustaining turkey
populations.
Resumen.-Guajolotes Silvestres (Gould) (Meleagris gallopavo
mexicana) fueron capturados cerca de Yecora, Sonora, Mexico,
marcados con radios transmisores, examinados para
enfermedades y liberados en las montafias Galiuro, Arizona
durante los inviernos de 1994 y 1997. Nose detectaron
enfermedades. Examine tasas de supervivencia despues de liberar
Guajolotes para determinar si edad, sexo, 6 tiempo de detenci6n
en captividad influyeron la supervivencia de los Guajolotes. Tasas
de supervivencia nose distinguieron entre edad y sexo pero si
fueron mas bajas para todas las edades y ambos sexos durante los
primeros 2-3 meses despues de ser liberados. No hubo diferencias
en supervivencia entre edades, sexo o tiempo de detenci6n. Yo
recomiendo que transplantes de Guajolotes a habitats donde se
anticipa alta mortalidad inicial deben tener Guajolotes con
proporciones similares de edad y sexo para asegurar alta
probabilidad de exito. Tiempo de detenci6n y transporte debe ser
razonable y prudente para reducir el periodo que los Guajolotes
1
Brian F. Wakeling, Research Biologist, Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research
Branch, 2221 West Greenway Road, Phoenix, AZ 85027, USA; e-mail: bwakeling@gf.state.az.us
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
227
pasan sin agua y alimento. El numero de Guajolotes liberados
debe ser suficientemente grande para asegurar que un numero
substancial sobrevive el periodo inicial de alta mortalidad. En
afios subsecuentes, es posible que mas transplantes de Guajolotes
tendnin que ocurrir para establecer poblaciones que se bastan a si
mismas.
INTRODUCTION
Multiple efforts have been made to reestablish Gould's turkey to its
former range in southern Arizona. Initial efforts in 1983 and 1985 to. reestablish a population of Gould's turkey within the Huachuca Mountains
along the U.S.-Mexican border met with obstacles when >55% of the birds
died during a mandatory 30-day quarantine period following their translocation from Chihuahua, Mexico (Breland 1988). This quarantine was
substantially longer than time periods which turkeys are held for most
trap-and-transplant programs. As a result of the high mortality during
quarantine, only 21 turkeys were released (9 in 1983, 12 in 1985) (Breland
1988). This reestablishment effort was further exacerbated when suspicions
of the continued presence of Merriam's turkeys (M.g. merriami), from a
prior release, arose following release of the surviving Gould's turkeys into
the Huachuca Mountains. Current population estimates for the Huachuca
Mountains are 50-90 birds (J. Millican, Ariz. Game and Fish Dep., pers.
commun., S. Stone, Fort Huachuca Army Garrison, pers. commun.). Despite the limited success of the reestablishment effort, concerns about high
mortality during the quarantine period halted further efforts at trap-andtransplant activities to reestablish Gould's turkey into Arizona from
Mexico (R. Engel-Wilson, Ariz. Game and Fish Dep., pers. commun.).
Trap-and-transplant programs have contributed substantially to the
recovery of the nation-wide turkey population from a low during the
1920s to its current status of huntable populations in 49 states today
(Kennamer et al. 1992). Trap-and-transplant techniques employ the capture of free-ranging turkeys via drug consumption, funnel-entrance traps,
box traps, drop nets, or rocket or cannon nets (Baldwin 1947, Glazener et
al. 1964, Williams 1966, Bailey et al. 1980), and rapid translocation of
captured turkeys to a suitable release site where they are free-released into
the wild. This technique has proved far more successful in establishing
and augmenting turkey populations than has efforts to do so with penreared turkeys (Bailey and Putnam 1979).
In 1994, a plan to temporarily eliminate the need for the mandatory
quarantine period when crossing the U.S.-Mexican border with turkeys
was implemented. Efforts to reestablish Gould's turkeys into Arizona
228
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
were reinitiated. Free-ranging Gould's turkeys were captured near Yecora,
Sonora, Mexico, and free-released into the Galiuro Mountains in southcentral Arizona. Twenty-one turkeys were released in February 1994, and
46 more were released in January and February 1997.
Because several factors differed between the 1994 and 1997 releases, I
evaluated the survival of Gould's turkeys post-release to determine if
those factors influenced survival rates. My objective in this study was to
examine survival rates following release and determine if age, gender, or
holding time influenced those rates. My ultimate objective was to recommend suitable changes to future trap-and-transplant procedures to maximize the probability of success.
·
STUDY AREA
Gould's turkeys were released near High Creek (at Knob Tank) in the
Galiuro Mountains, in south-central Arizona, during February 1994 and
January and February 1997. The Galiuro Mountains are steep and broken,
containing narrow, deep canyons and rugged cliffs at higher elevations.
The area turkeys explored following release encompassed about 1,100
km2 • Elevations ranged from 750 to 2,300 m. The study area was composed
of madrean evergreen woodland (49.3% of area), semidesert grassland
(39.4%), interior chaparral (6.3o/o), plains and great basin grassland (3.2%),
and petran montane conifer forest (1.7%) (Brown et al. 1979). Ponderosa
(Pinus ponderosa) and Chihuahuan pine (P.leiophylla) are common in
higher elevations and canyons, as are Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii).
Aspen (Populus tremuloides) occurred, but only within Ash Creek. Numerous oaks (Quercus gambelii, Q. turbinella, Q. emoryi, Q. oblongifolia) were
common throughout the mountain range, as was juniper (Juniperus
deppeana, J. monosperma). Pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) occurred only in the
northern portion of the mountain range. Grasslands occurred mainly in
lower elevations between mountain ridges.
METHODS
I radio-marked each turkey with a motion-sensing telemetry unit
(Model LB-400, Telonics, Inc., Mesa, Ariz.) prior to release. A cloacal swab
was taken from each turkey and used to test for the presence of avian
influenza and Newcastles' disease. Fecal samples were tested for salmonella. During 1994, all turkeys were free-released after translocation (about
95 hrs after capture) at the Knob Tank-High Creek release site. All21
turkeys (12 adult female, 9 subadult male) were free-released on February
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
229
2, 1994. In 1997, turkeys were free-released in 8 separate events (Table 1) at
the Knob Tank-High Creek release site (<48 hrs after capture).
Table 1. Date, age and gender composition, and approximate holding time for
Gould's turkeys released into the Galiuro Mountains, Arizona, 1997.
Release date
Age and gender composition
Approximate holding time
Jan 10, 1997
Jan 23, 1997
Jan 24, 1997
Jan 27,1997
Jan 30, 1997
Feb 5, 1997
Feb 11, 1997
Feb 12, 1997
2 adult female
4 subadult male, 1 adult female
2 adult male
2 subadult male, 4 subadult female, 6 adult female
1 adult female
11 adult male
5 adult female
2 subadult female, 6 adult female
48 hrs
24 hrs
24 hrs
24 hrs ·
48 hrs
24hrs
24 hrs
24 hrs
I aerially monitored radio-marked turkeys >1X monthly to document
their survival following release. I visually monitored females during June
through September at infrequent intervals to determine if they had successfully nested and brooded young. Survival data was evaluated using
MICROMORT (Heisey and Fuller 1985). I evaluated survival rates by
monthly time intervals and combined those months with survival rates
that did not differ (P ~ 0.05) using a Z test (Heisey and Fuller 1985). I used
Z tests to conduct pairwise comparisons to determine if survival rates
differed by age and gender.
RESULTS
Disease tests isolated no positive cultures for any of the pathogens
tested for. All turkeys captured and tested from the Yecora, Sonora,
Mexico population during 1994 and 1997 showed no exposure to avian
influenza, N ewcastles' disease, or salmonella.
Following the first release effort in 1994, turkeys suffered substantial
mortality before reproduction could occur. All subadult male turkeys
released during 1994 died within the first 2 months following release. I
was unable to detect any nesting attempts by adult females during spring
1994. By the end of August 1994, only 7 female turkeys remained alive. By
June 1995,4 females remained alive. The last female died in October 1996.
The second release effort in 1997 suffered similarly high initial mortality.
By June 1997, 9 turkeys (1 adult male, 2 subadult males, 5 adult females,
and 1 subadult female) remained alive. Although I was again unable to
detect any nesting attempts during spring of 1997, frequency of turkey
mortalities declined. By January 1998, only 1 additional adult female died.
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USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
:-
-·~.
'.
When evaluating survival rates, I detected no differences (P > 0.10)
between the first and second release efforts. Consequently, I pooled
monthly survival rates across years. Monthly survival rates for all age and
gender classes exhibited similar trends during monthly time intervals
120 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
100 __ ......-4---~!--l---~---~---~----;--------.
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-····--····:-······-······-········--·····-·········-······-·····-·········-·-·········-·---··············-·-····-·-·-· +Adult male. yr 1
60
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20 ·-······-· ---·····--····--······---·····-·-······--·······-·-······--·····---····--··················---·····---·····--····---······-······
Figure 1. Monthly survival rates for age, gender, and time since release classes
in the Galiuro Mountains, Arizona, 1994-1997.
following release (Figure 1). Only adult females during years following
the first year of release exhibited elevated survival rates during the February through March time period (Z = 2.326, P = 0.019).
Gould's turkeys suffered lower survival rates during the first 2-3
months following release than they did in the remainder of their first year
(Table 2). Adult male turkey survival rates during the first 3 months after
release differed from the remaining 9 months during the first year (Z =
12.756, P < 0.001). Adult female survival rates differed between the first 2
months and the latter 10 months during the first year (Z = 6.686, P <
0.001), although there was no difference between survival rates during
these time periods in subsequent years for adult female turkeys (Z = 0.679,
P = 0.542). Subadult male (Z = 3.056, P = 0.002) and females (Z = 7.139, P <
0.001) also differed between the first 2 months following release and the
latter 10 months during the first year. I detected no difference in survival
between age and gender classes during either the first 2-3 months or the
latter 9-10 months of the first year (P > 0.145).
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
231
Table 2. Age and gender-specific survival rates (variance) by time period following release for Gould's turkeys transplanted during winter 1994 and 1997 in the
Galiuro Mountains, Arizona.
Period
Adult male,
first year
Feb-Mar
0.098 (0.005)
Apr-Jan 1.000 (0.000)
a
Adult female,
first year
Subadult male, Subadult female,
Adult female,
first year
first year
subsequent years
0.408 (0.013)
0.359 (0.044)
0.097 (0.016)
0.859 (0.015)
0.707 (0.014)
1.000 (0.000)
1.000 (0.000)
0.682 (0.030)
Periods for adult male, first year: Feb-Apr and May-Jan.
DISCUSSION
Turkeys suffered high initial mortality rates for 2-3 months following
release regardless of time held prior to release, age, or gender. There did
not seem to be any superior class that survived better than another. This
depressed initial survival might be used to encourage resource managers
to investigate predator removal or release acclimation pens to improve
initial survival. Because of the topography and vegetative cover of the
Galiuro Mountains and the large-scale movements exhibited by the turkeys after release, I believe that predator removal could not affect a sufficiently large area and temporary holding birds within acclimation pens
might only postpone high mortality during exploration of available habitat.
Differential survival rates at different release sites may depend on predator
densities and structural characteristics of transplant sites. Because survival
rates improve 2-3 months following release, I recommend that future
releases contain sufficient numbers of turkeys to ensure that a substantial
number will survive through the exploration period. Multiple releases in
subsequent years may be necessary to establish a self-sustaining population.
Survival rates of Gould's turkeys in the Galiuro Mountains following
the period of initial high mortality were comparable to those of other
established turkey populations. Annual mean mortality rates of 30% seem
common in stable or increasing turkey populations (Kurzejeski et al. 1987,
Wakeling 1991). Nest success seems to be the factor that most affects
turkey populations (Roberts et al. 1995, Roberts and Porter 1996). Although in southwestern turkey populations, enhancing the propensity for
yearling females to nest has the greatest probability of increasing turkey
population size (Wakeling and Rogers 1998).
I believe that there is little evidence to suggest that time held in captivity or age and gender ratios have limited reestablishment efforts. I speculate that once the turkeys become familiar with the habitats that they have
been released in, their survival rates increase. Certainly, translocation
efforts should occur in the shortest period of time possible to minimize
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USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
stresses associated with the lack of food and water during translocation.
But differences of 24-95 hrs in transport time had no discernable effect on
turkey survival rates.
Age and gender did not influence survival rates. Consequently, sufficient numbers are necessary to ensure that enough of each age and gender
will survive to successfully breed. In a habitat where high initial mortality
may occur, an even sex ratio may be superior to the 1 male to 4 females
recommended by Hoffman et al. (1993). In this type of habitat, approaching an even ratio of subadult and adult birds in the release group is also
desirable because turkeys may not breed during the first year following
transplant. Breeding during the year of release has been documented ·in
southwestern ranges (S. Albert, Zuni Wildl. Dep., pers. commun.) and
should not be universally discounted. However, yearling females may not
breed in the Southwest (Wakeling 1991) and may not contribute reproductively during the first year. Alternately, adult birds, with a mean life expectancy of 3 years (Wakeling 1991), may not have sufficient longevity to
breed in subsequent years if they do not breed the first year. An even age
ratio may best prepare transplanted populations to take advantage of
habitat and climatic conditions at the release site.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This manuscript is truly a result of numerous cooperating agencies and
people. The capture, release, and monitoring was facilitated by the Arizona
Game and Fish Department, National Wild Turkey Federation, USDA Forest
Service, Centro Ecologico de Sonora, IMADES, and USDA Animal/Plant
Health Inspection Service. A partial list of personnel that made this study
possible includes R. W. Engel-Wilson, F. Abarca, M. Haro R., J. C. Morales
L., J. E. Kennamer, J. S. Elliott, J. Heffelfinger, R. Olding, R. E. Schweinsburg,
J. C. deVos, Jr., A. Moorehouse, V. Nettles, R. Spaulding, W. R. Mannan, and
P.R. Krausman. Numerous individuals assisted in the trap-and-transplant
efforts. I am grateful to S. MacVean for translating the abstract. This research
was funded by a Research Grant by the National Wild Turkey Federation
and through the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-78-R.
LITERATURE CITED
Bailey, R. W., and D. J. Putnam. 1979. The 1979 turkey restoration survey.
Turkey Call 6(3):28-30.
Bailey, W., D. Dennett, H. Gore, J. Pack, R. Simpson, and G. Wright. 1980.
Basic considerations and general recommendations for trapping the
wild turkey. Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 4:10-23.
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Baldwin, W. P. 1947. Trapping wild turkeys in South Carolina. J. Wildl.
Manage. 11:24-36.
Breland, W. R. 1988. Reintroduction of the Gould's turkey in southeastern
Arizona. Proc. Western Wild Turkey Workshop 4:12-26.
Brown, D. E., C. H. Lowe, and C. P. Pase. 1979. A digitized classification
system for the biotic communities of North America, with community
(series) and association examples for the Southwest. Journal of the
Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science 14 (suppl. 1):1-16.
Glazener, W. C., A. S. Jackson, and M. L. Cox. 1964. The Texas drop-net
turkey trap. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:280-287.
.
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Hoffman, R. W., H. G. Shaw, M.A. Rumble, B. F. Wakeling, C. M.
Mollohan, S.D. Schemnitz, R. Engel-Wilson, and D. A. Hengel. 1993.
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Kennamer, J. E., M. Kennamer, and R. Brenneman. 1992. History. Pages 617 in J. G. Dickson, ed. The wild turkey: biology and management.
Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA.
Kurzejeski, E. W., L. D. Vangilder, and J. B. Lewis. 1987. Survival of wild
turkey hens in north Missouri. J. Wildl. Manage. 51:188-193.
Roberts, S.D., J. M. Coffey, and W. F. Porter. 1995. Survival and reproduction of female wild turkeys in New York. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:437-447.
and W. F. Porter. 1996. Importance of demographic parameters to annual
changes in wild turkey abundance. Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 7:15-20.
Wakeling, B. F. 1991. Population and nesting characteristics of Merriam's
turkey along the Mogollon Rim, Arizona. Ariz. Game and Fish Dep.
Tech. Rep. 7., Phoenix. 48pp
_ _,and T. D. Rogers. 1998. Summer resource selection and yearlong
survival of male Merriam's turkey in north-central Arizona. Ariz. Game
and Fish Dep. Tech. Rep., Phoenix. In press.
Williams, L. E., Jr. 1966. Capturing wild turkeys with alpha-chloralose. J.
Wildl. Manage. 30:50-56.
__J
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Brian F. Wakeling received a B.S. in Wildlife Management and an M.S. in
Environmental Resources from Arizona State University. He has been
conducting research on Arizona's Merriam's and Gould's turkeys for the
past 10 years. Prior to working on turkeys, Brian was involved in desert
bighorn sheep and black bear research in Arizona. Brian serves as a Technical Representative from Arizona to the National Wild Turkey Federation
and is a Past-President of the Arizona Chapter of The Wildlife Society.
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USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-5. 1998
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