P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: P O L L U T I O N
Oil Pollution 2F
O
il pollution of the sea attracts public
the ship may be repaired. Today, ship yards are compelled
attention because it is so visible. Many people
to provide “slop reception” facilities and as a result the
will encounter oil pollution when they visit coastal
amount of oil being discharged by dry docks was reduced
areas and others will watch the devastating effects
from 30 000 tons in 1981 to 4 000 tons in 1989.
of oil spills on television, or read about them in the
• Oil tankers load and discharge their cargos of oil at marine
press. But accidents at sea are not the only way that
terminals around the world. Accidents at marine terminals,
oil enters the ocean environment; there are a number
as a result of human error or pipeline failure, are an
of other routes by which an estimated 2.5 million
tons of petroleum hydrocarbons contaminate our
inevitable occurrence. For instance, in Cape Town, in 1998,
an estimated 150 tons of bunker oil leaked into Table Bay
Harbour when a pipe, that led to an oil storage facility, burst.
seas every year.
• All ships need to pump out bilge water which usually
• Oil greases the cogs of world industry. About three billion
contains oil from the ship’s engines. The quantity of oil
tons of crude oil is produced every year and half of this is
that is released by each ship may be small, but since all
transported by sea-going oil tankers. After a tanker has
shipping contributes, the total amount of oil entering the
unloaded its cargo of oil it has to take on seawater as
sea is considerable.
ballast, for stability, for the return journey to the oil fields.
The ballast water is usually stored in cargo compartments
which previously contained oil. Ballast water inevitably
becomes contaminated by oil residue in the cargo holds. In
a 200 000 ton tanker, residue oil may amount to as much as
8 000 tons. In the past a significant amount of this dirty ballast
water was discharged into the sea and was responsible for
much of the oil pollution in the world’s oceans. Today, transportation companies have formulated ways of reducing the
amount of oil that is discharged in ballast water. Consequently,
the amount of oil entering the sea as a result of tanker operations has steadily diminished from an estimated one million
tons in the mid 1970s to 158 000 tons in the early 1990s.
• A large number of accidents involving oil tankers take place
every year. Even though most accidents result in little or no
cargo spillage, major shipping disasters occur all too frequently. Most shipping accidents occur where the density of
shipping is high, usually close to shore. As a result, coastal
pollution is the almost inevitable result of major shipping
disasters. In 1994 the iron ore carrier, Apollo Sea, broke up
in heavy seas close to Cape Town, spilling 2400 tonnes of
heavy bunker fuel oil. The consequences were devastating;
oil contaminated beaches took months to clean and some
7 500 seabirds had to be rescued and cleaned following the
disaster. A further 1 500 birds are known to have died from
oil contamination. The cost of the clean-up operation which
• All ships, including oil tankers, visit dry docks for servicing
followed the Apollo Sea disaster was R27 million. In June
and repairs. In order to eliminate fire hazards, oil has to be
2000 the ill-fated ore carrier Treasure sank in 50 m water
removed from cargo compartments and fuel tanks before
some 10 km off Melkbosstrand near Cape Town, spewing
Oil tanker spewing oil into the ocean
The messy clean-up operation
hundreds of tons of fuel oil into the sea. Over 20 000 oiled
penguins were rescued and cleaned and a further 20 000
unoiled penguins were transported to Port Elizabeth and
released to swim the 800 km back to their home islands
after the oil had dispersed. This was the largest seabird
rescue campaign ever. During this time the remaining oil
was removed by divers who drilled into the compartments
of the ship and pumped out the oil, using a special seal to
prevent oil leaking into the sea.
• A considerable amount of oil is discharged into the sea
during the day-to-day operations of offshore oil producers.
Accidents on oil rigs have resulted in hundreds of thousands
of tons of crude oil leaking into the oceans.
• Domestic wastes and sewage contain oil and grease. In
coastal areas these wastes are often discharged into the sea.
• Every time it rains, iridescence caused by oil and petrol can
be seen on the roads. This is washed down drains and into
repellant properties of a seabird’s plumage. Oiled birds rapidly
water courses and eventually reaches the sea. In South Africa
become water-logged and some will sink and drown. Others
the ROSE Foundation (Recovery of Oil Saves the Environment)
will lose their thermal insulation, become exhausted and die.
collects and recycles used engine oil. Since many people
Penguins are particularly vulnerable because they cannot fly
change the oil in their cars themselves, it is suspected that
and must enter the water to feed.
much of this “lost oil” finds its way into drains or onto the
land from which it is carried into rivers and then to the sea.
Socio-economic impacts
When liquid oil spills into the sea, it spreads over the surface
Oil slicks that wash onto beaches can have serious economic
of the water and forms a thin film – an oil slick. An oil slick may
effects due to loss of fishing and tourism activities.
have a devastating effect on the environment. If it contaminates
rocky shores, oil can cause severe damage to the intertidal
Prevention and control of oil pollution
area, smothering invertebrates and killing algae. On sandy
In 1973 the International Convention for the Prevention of
beaches, liquid oil penetrates into the substratum where low
Pollution from Ships (Marpol) laid down rules which were
oxygen levels slow the degradation process. In some cases,
modified in 1978 and 1992. Discharges of oily waste are
oil leaches from the sediments some time after the spill, causing
regulated; it is mandatory for ships to separate ballast water
renewed contamination. Estuarine environments, such as
from crude oil washing systems. Ships are not allowed to clean
mangrove forests and salt marshes are particularly vulnerable
out their bunkers at sea. All new tankers since 1993 have to
to oil spills because these are calm environments where oil is
have double hulls and approved ‘environment-friendly’
likely to be trapped. Oiled plants may be inhibited from flow-
designs. Old tankers have to be upgraded once they reach
ering or germinating and in many cases they are simply killed.
Whatever other effects oil pollution may have, its effect on
25 years of age. This is important as the bulk of the world
supertank fleet was built between 1970 and 1978.
seabirds is the most insidious. It is not the toxicity of oil that
kills seabirds, but rather the fact that oil effects the water-
Author: Claire Attwood September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Chemicals and the Environment. EnviroTeach no.2. 1997
• South African National Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Seabirds (SANCCOB). PO Box 11116, Bloubergrant 7443. Tel: (021) 557 6155
• Gosling, M. 2000. Nightmare in Table Bay. African Wildlife vol 54 (5): 6:13
• ROSE Foundation PO Box 6244, Roggebaai 8012. Tel (021) 421-1855 Fax: (021) 425-3167
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Marine Pollution • Plastic Pollution • Birds and Oil Spills • Harbour Pollution
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: P O L L U T I O N
Plastic Pollution 2F
P
lastic has become the defining medium
polythene, polypropylene, and sometimes polystyrene, 3-4 mm
of our Synthetic Century precisely because
in diameter are used in plastic manufacture and are widespread
in the oceans. They probably reach the sea through accidental
it combines the ultimate twentieth-century
spillages at ports, or at factories close to rivers. They are
characteristics – artificiality, disposability and
buoyant, virtually indestructible and are presumably steadily
synthesis – all rolled into one.
accumulating in the sea and on coasts all over the world.)
Other types of small litter, such as foamed plastics and frag-
Plastic too good to throw away
ments of plastic articles are also found on beaches close to
major centres, which emphasises the importance of land-based
In the five decades since the end of World War II, plastic has
sources for marine litter. Crude estimates suggest that in Cape
crept unceasingly, and often invisibly, into our homes, cars,
offices, even our bodies; some of us have plastic hearts, joints,
valves or limbs. The very qualities that have made plastics so
vital to life in the twentieth century, make them ideally suited
Town alone, more than four million litter items find their way
into stormwater drains, and eventually the sea, every day!
Large litter items found on South African beaches increased
to pollute the marine environment. Plastics are not designed
by 16% between 1989 and 1994, with a greater increase
to biodegrade. A plastic container will survive in a landfill site
among plastic (17%) than non-plastic (3%) artefacts. Plastic
for between 50 and 80 years and most plastics will have a
packaging and recreational fishing wastes contribute signifi-
long life in the sea.
cantly to the tally of large litter items found on South African
beaches. It is thought that increased beach cleaning efforts
Types of plastic pollution
during the past decade might be masking even larger
increases in the abundance of large litter items.
The fact that plastic floats makes it especially problematic as
a marine pollutant. Plastic items can be dispersed over long
Sources of plastic pollution
distances and impact areas far removed from the source of
pollution. As a result of its durability, and the ease with which
Overall, 96% of identifiable items collected on South African
it may be transported, plastics make up more than 80% of
beaches were manufactured locally, but the proportion of
marine litter. The average age of plastic litter on beaches is
foreign-made artefacts ranged from less than 2% at urban
2.9 years; older material is generally in fragments and stranded
beaches to 14% at remote beaches. Assuming that most
high on the shore. Over half the stranded plastic is in the
foreign-made debris derives from ships, it would appear that
form of containers for lavatory and household cleansers,
as much as 80% of the plastic pollution in our seas is derived
which are made of polyetheylene, but there is a great variety
from land-based sources. This would seem to emphasise the
of other types of plastic packaging, made from a variety of
fact that littering is a people problem.
plastics.
Impacts
Research into the sources and types of marine litter found in
The impacts of plastic litter on marine systems may be
South Africa has revealed the scale of plastic pollution in our
seas. Small plastic pellets are found on all beaches, but the
measured in terms of biological impacts and economic impacts.
greatest concentrations occur at industrial centres such as
Biological impacts can be defined as those that affect marine
Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban. This
animals and ecosystems, independent of their relationship with
indicates that the plastics industry continues to lose significant
humans. Economic impacts are those which have a direct
amounts of pellets into the environment. (These small pellets of
bearing on people and the resources they exploit.
It takes many years for litter to degrade
Leather shoe
5 – 40 years
Plastic container
50 – 80 years
Plastic bag
2 – 12 years
Plastic foam container
never
Nylon cloth
30 – 40 years
The fate of far too many of our
marine animals
Another approach to quantifying the economic
impacts of marine pollution is to consider the amount
that local authorities spend on cleaning beaches. In South
Africa, this amounts to approximately R8 million per year.
Having beaches littered with debris may also be a deterrent
to tourists and cost the country millions in lost tourist trade.
Solutions
The most effective way to tackle the marine litter problem
in South Africa, may be to reduce the amount of material
used in one-use applications, such as packaging. Plastics
manufacturers should be responsible for the disposal costs
associated with their products and re-use programmes
should be supported by a deposit system. Public education
should play an increasingly important role in addressing the
Biological impacts
litter problem, with communities encouraged to tackle the
Entanglement in and ingestion of litter affects a wide variety
problem at its source.
of marine animals and often causes their deaths. Off South
A poverty alleviation project has been initiated in several areas
Africa at least five species of mammals, 13 seabirds, two
to provide work and training programs for teams of beach
turtles and six fish species have been found entangled in
cleaners.
marine litter. Although entanglement results in the death of
many individuals, it appears that this is generally insufficient
Action
to threaten otherwise healthy populations.
• South Africans need to be educated to reduce, re-use and
Relative to entanglement, much larger numbers of marine
recycle plastics to prevent them from polluting the marine
animals ingest marine litter. Some pelagic seabirds that visit
environment.
our waters have among the highest levels of plastic ingestion
recorded, with almost every Great Shearwater (Puffinus gravis)
or Blue Petrel (Halobaena caerulea) containing plastic in its
stomach. When plastics accumulate in the stomach of an
animal it doesn’t feel hungry and starves to death.
• Join the thousands of South Africans who take part in an
international “Coastal Cleanup” campaign. The annual
cleanup serves to remove debris from beaches, collect
valuable information about the amount and types of debris
on our beaches and to educate people about plastic and
other forms of marine pollution.
Economic impacts
The direct economic impacts of litter in marine systems may
Legislation
be quantified. For instance, one study, based on insurance
returns, estimated that in 1985, hundreds of millions of US
dollars were lost to shipping and fishing companies as a
Did you know that it is illegal to throw persistent litter such as
plastics into the sea from a boat or a ship?
result of damage and lost time caused by marine litter fouling
of engines and equipment.
Author: Claire Attwood September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION:
• Environmental Officer, Plastics Federation of South Africa,
Private Bag X68, Halfway House, 1685. Tel: (011) 3144021/7 Fax: (011) 3143764. E-mail: dsteyn@plasfed.co.za
• Dolphin Action & Protection Group, PO Box 2227, Fish Hoek, 7945. Tel: (021) 782 5845.
RELATED FACTSHEETS:
• Impacts of Human Activity on the Coast • Oil Pollution • Harbour Pollution • Beach Cleanups.
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: P O L L U T I O N
Harbour Pollution 2F
H
arbours are an important hub for
Heavy metals, such as zinc, copper, lead, tin, mercury and
development and commercial activity, but
cadmium are often introduced into harbours from maintenance
have a reputation for being some of the most polluted
of marine environments. They are affected by both
activities such as painting, scraping and grit-blasting. They may
become trapped in the sediments on the harbour floor, only to
be released during routine dredging. Furthermore, TBT (tributyl
marine and land-based pollution sources, including
tin), an anti-fouling paint used on boats to prevent the settle-
shipping, surrounding industries and stormwater
ment of mussels, barnacles and seaweeds, is highly toxic to
runoff, all of which contribute to deteriorating
marine life and may put human consumers of seafood at risk.
water quality and unsightly litter. The problem is
Oil is one of the more visible pollutants in harbours, where
compounded by the fact that harbours are generally
refueling operations and off-loading of imported oil supplies
not as well flushed as other waters along our high-
are everyday activities. Fortunately, most harbours have well-
energy coastline, since they are designed to provide
developed contingency plans for accidental oil spills, but oil
shelter from wind and waves. This means that
pollutants may accumulate to the point that they
become toxic to marine life.
and chemical pollution as a result of stormwater runoff from
surrounding areas is harder to control.
Litter enters harbours through stormwater drains or from being
blown off the quay by the wind. Plastic materials take many
years to break down, and may kill or injure marine animals
Types of pollution
The main pollutants affecting harbours are organic waste,
litter, petroleum hydrocarbons and toxic chemicals.
that become entangled in this litter or mistake it as food.
South Africa has seven commercial ports along its 3000 km
coastline, located at Saldanha Bay, Table Bay (Cape Town),
Mossel Bay, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and
Organic waste: Raw sewage is generally not discharged into
Richards Bay. There are also a large number of small-boat
harbours deliberately, but bacteriological monitoring of faecal
harbours for fishing vessels, skiboats and yachts.
coliforms reveals that human waste does indeed find its way
into harbours via stormwater runoff. The high nutrient levels
The following case studies from the Western Cape illustrate
associated with sewage and other organic waste, such as fish-
the variety of pollution problems experienced in harbours, and
factory effluent, promote the growth of nuisance algae, while
efforts being made to address them.
the decomposition process may deplete oxygen concentrations
in the water column and sediments. Once the oxygen is
The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront
exhausted, this process may be replaced by anaerobic
Cape Town harbour is a large, busy port, subject to pollution
decomposition, producing foul-smelling methane and sulphide
from a number of sources. However, with the development of
gas that is toxic to marine life.
the V&A Waterfront, one of the Cape’s most popular tourist
attractions, it was litter pollution that came under the spotlight.
water port and iron-ore jetty. A causeway built between the
Floating plastic and windblown litter is now swept off the
mainland and Marcus Island effectively divided the bay into two
surface of the water daily by a sweeper barge, but the problem
– Big and Small Bay – disrupting the natural water circulation
is ongoing because the harbour is the discharge point for
patterns. Effluent from the surrounding fish factories soon
stormwater systems draining the City Bowl. Harbour
began to effect the system, causing eutrophication (nutrient
authorities have attempted to contain the litter by covering
enrichment) and changes in the benthic community.
stormwater outfalls with large nets that can be periodically
cleared, but these often burst during heavy rainstorms.
In 1984, mussel-culture rafts were installed in Small Bay, introducing another potential pollution source. Since then, the
Some of the litter comes from sources within the harbour
seafloor below the rafts has become covered in a thick layer of
itself. Fishing line and nets, as well as nylon strapping used to
debris, made up of faeces as well as dislodged mussels and
secure fish boxes, are regularly lost overboard or blown off the
fouling organisms that colonise the rafts. This has led to further
quay outside fishing companies operating within the harbour.
changes in the benthic community, although the effect is very
Seals often become entangled in these items, which cut into
localised, and cannot be detected more than 100-200 m away
the flesh, causing deep wounds. A team from Marine and
from the farm. As a result, it has been recommended that any
Coastal Management visit the seals’ favourite haul-out site
expansion of mussel-farming activities should be done in a step-
each day to remove such items from entangled animals, and
wise fashion and limited to Big Bay, which is better flushed.
treat the injured where possible.
Other pollution sources at Saldanha Bay are the 36 outfalls
Cape Metropolitan Coastal Water Quality
Committee
for stormwater discharge, sewage overflows and fish-factory
The CMC administration undertakes regular monitoring of
Saldanha Bay has been earmarked for an Industrial Develop-
effluent, while accidental oil spills have occasionally occurred
during off-loading of imported crude oil supplies. Furthermore,
faecal bacteria in coastal waters within its jurisdiction to
ment Zone, adding to the existing steel mill and heavy-mineral
determine whether its beaches are safe for recreational use.
processing plant. This will necessitate expansion of the port
This monitoring has consistently indicated that Kalk Bay
in the long term, increasing the threat of pollution.
Harbour is the most sewage-polluted site of 38 tested in
Author: Sue Matthews September 2000
False Bay. Different types of pollution are evident at the other
small-boat harbours. At Simonstown, residents complain
about the noise and dust pollution caused by grit-blasting in
the naval dockyard, and express concerns that the seabed is
being contaminated with heavy metals. Hout Bay is a busy
fishing and recreational port surrounded by fish-processing
factories, so organic effluent and fuel spills probably compound
the ever-present stormwater problems.
In response to these concerns, the Cape Metropolitan Water
Quality Committee was established in 1998, made up of
representatives from national departments, local municipalities,
harbour authorities and environmental organisations. It is
hoped that clarification of roles and responsibilities, as well as
improved co-ordination between these different groups, will
help to address the pollution problems.
Saldanha Bay
Legislation and conventions
South Africa is a signatory to the following international
conventions and agreements that have implications for the
management of water quality in harbours:
• Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention)
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL Convention)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS).
A variety of South African legislation is also applicable to
marine pollution, but inadequately enforced. The organisations responsible for control of water quality in harbours are
the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry, the Department of
Environmental Affairs & Tourism, Portnet and local authorities.
In the 1970s, Saldanha Bay was dredged to construct a deepFURTHER INFORMATION: • Walmsley et. al. 1999. An Overview of Water Quality Management of South Africa’s Major Port-Catchment Systems - WRC
Report No 794/1/99. Water Research Commission.
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Oil Pollution • Harbour Pollution • Marine Pollution • Plastic Pollution • Birds and Oil Spills • Beach Cleanups
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: P O L L U T I O N
Beach Cleanups 2F
M
ISSION OF THE INTERNATIONAL
COASTAL CLEANUP
• To remove debris from the shorelines, waterways
and beaches of the world’s lakes, rivers and the
countries have taken hands-on action to clean up the ocean
and shores of our planet. This has helped to co-ordinate the
South African national effort, increase awareness and get the
industry and the government involved in trying to address
the problems.
ocean.
• To collect valuable information on the amount
and types of debris.
• To educate people on the issue of marine debris.
• To use the information collected from the
cleanup to effect positive changes on all levels,
from individuals to whole nations, to reduce
marine debris and enhance marine conservation.
The effectiveness of a cleanup continues long after the last bag
of trash is hauled away and the tired volunteers go home. Many
people are shocked into action by the sheer volume of rubbish
and start recycling campaigns and public education programs
or adopt a beach. The cleanups are all about co-operation and
partnerships. They bring people together on the beaches for a
day out in the open when they not only see the debris, but are
motivated to protect the beauty of our coast as well. Divers,
school children, industrialist, teachers, boaters and environmentalists all take part and get to appreciate the magnitude
The ocean was once seen as vast and limitless, endlessly
able to absorb whatever rubbish we dumped in it. But instead
of disappearing, marine debris persists in the environment,
of the problem and start working creatively for solutions.
The sources of beach debris
fouling up our beautiful beaches, threatening human health and
One of the aims of beach cleanups is to record all the debris
endangering marine life. Over the years motivated groups
and to identify the sources of rubbish. This is not always easy
have held special events to clean up the beaches but it is
as litter may travel the world carried by winds and currents or
discouraging to see how much rubbish is collected and how
be washed down rivers. The results show, however, that there
quickly it accumulates again. In recent years South Africa has
is a halo of rubbish around each coastal settlement, indicating
participated in the International Coastal Cleanup in which
that the bulk of the trash is not from boats, but originates on
over a million people, all volunteers, from more than 90
land. Some litter is just left on the beach by thoughtless visitors,
but other items arrive from amazing places. Argentinian oil
South Africa landed in Perth, Australia. Sometimes a type of
The Marpol Convention – for the prevention of
pollution at sea
rubbish can be traced to a particular outlet and this evidence
The main international convention on the prevention of
containers have washed up in Saldanha Bay and bottles from
can be used to challenge the company or shop to change.
pollution from ships is known as the Marpol convention. It
For example at Camps Bay thousands of plastic drinking
includes annexes on oil pollution, noxious waste and
straws littered the beach – the local cafes and shops were
garbage. Annex 5 controls the disposal of garbage at sea.
challenged to stop supplying straws. In Cape Town harbour
No plastics at all may be disposed. Food may be dumped
the plastic strapping, that often strangles seals, was traced to
not closer than 12 km to the shore and packaging not closer
a fishing company. Plastic bags usually contain the names of
than 25 km to the shore. Harbours have to supply refuse
supermarkets and they have been challenged to reduce the
collection facilities. The Marpol convention is ratified by over
number of bags issued but a change in the consumers use of
80 countries and applies to 90% of the world’s merchant
plastic is needed as well. A possible solution is to provide
ships but not all ships act responsibly when on the high seas.
thicker reusable plastic bags, that are purchased. Plastic is
In South Africa each ship’s garbage is weighed to make sure
very useful and it only becomes a problem if it is discarded in
that some of it has not been dumped at sea.
the wrong place.
Beach cleanup results
In 1998 about 5 000 people covered 650 km of coastline of
KwaZulu-Natal and collected 300 000 items of litter. In the
Western and Eastern Cape 5 716 people collected 15 576
large bags of litter. In 1999 over 15 000 people collected
24 000 bags from the Northern, Western and Eastern Cape.
People are the solution
The responsibility for this worldwide problem does not rest
solely with governments, shipping companies or fishing fleets.
Every piece of litter that lands up on the beach was thrown
away by someone – whether it was thrown overboard, left at
the beach, dropped in the street, or flushed down the toilet, a
An analysis of the results shows that plastic makes up about
storm drain or a river. People can be the solution too – by
70% of all items collected. The most common of the plastics
making sure that a minimum of disposable packaging is used
(64%), being plastic bags, bottles, caps, fast food containers
and being sure to dispose of litter in the correct place. Landfill
and cigarette butts. Fishing line, lures, nets and rope accounted
sites can be a problem, especially in windy areas, as the
for about 4% of the plastics. Glass made up 13%, and metal
rubbish must be covered before it blows away. Recycling is a
cans about 8% of the total.
way of reducing debris, especially cans, bottles and paper.
There are many different types of plastics and each type has to
How to participate in the annual Beach Cleanup
The national coastal cleanup usually takes place during the
be recycled separately. Due to these constraints the recycling
of plastics has not been very successful. The Plastics
Federation has taken up the challenge to try and recycle
third week in September, with the cleanup day being the
more plastic. For any recycled product however there must
Saturday of that week. If you wish to participate, contact
be a market to make the venture viable.
KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife or Marine and Coastal Management,
Cape Town. They will help you choose a beach to clean and
provide free bags, data cards etc. so that your results can
become part of the international data base.
So if you want to make a difference be responsible for every
bit of rubbish you handle and take part in the next beach
cleanup – it is fun and will open your eyes.
Author: Margo Branch September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION:
• Branch, M. 1999. Marine Pollution A learning guide. Two Oceans Aquarium Education Centre, Waterfront, Cape Town. Tel. (021) 418 4950 & 418 3823.
• Community Outreach projects, Marine and Coastal Management, P O Box 120, Greenpoint, 8051. Tel. (021) 430 7018, Fax 439 3414.
• KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife (formerly KZN Conservation Services), P O Box 662, Pietermaritzburg, 3200. Tel. (0331) 471961
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Plastic Pollution • Our Coast: A National Heritage • Impacts of Human Activity on the Coast • Coastal Management
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: P O L L U T I O N
Birds and Oil Spills 2F
S
outh Africa is situated on a major shipping
route for bulk ore carriers and oil tankers.
Many of these ships are old and poorly maintained,
and some are unseaworthy. Sometimes they develop
On the negative side, approximately 5 200 of the collected
penguins died, many as a result of stress caused by poor
handling and transportation techniques. For example,
inexperienced volunteers sometimes feed the birds damaged
fish or may make mistakes when administering fluids, resulting
cracks in their hulls that may go unnoticed until the
in fluid inhalation and respiratory problems. The birds also need
ship begins to break up and sink, resulting in an oil
enough space in captivity to lie down and relieve pressure on
spill. Oil spills occasionally also occur after ships
their feet, while variable surface textures are important in
run aground because of rough seas, human error or
minimising repetitive stress injuries to feet. Foot problems
mechanical failure. Although all marine life is at risk
from oil spills, penguins are often the most severely
affected because they cannot fly and must enter the
water to feed. Two serious oil spills have occurred in
South Africa in recent years – the Apollo Sea in
include oedema and calluses – if calluses split and become
infected they cause a condition known as ‘bumble foot’. In
addition, poor ventilation when the birds are housed inside prior
to washing leads to a respiratory disease called aspergillosis.
After the Apollo Sea oil spill, a workshop was held to review
such problems and find solutions to combat them.
June 1994 and the Treasure in June 2000, requiring
massive rescue and cleaning programmes to save the
Treasure oil spill
oiled birds. In fact the 2000 programme was the
When the Treasure sank near Robben Island on 23 June 2000,
largest and most successful rescue of oiled birds in the
approximately 20 000 penguins were captured for cleaning
world with some 40 000 penguins being handled
under the experienced supervision of the South
African National Foundation for the Conservation
of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB).
and rehabilitation, necessitating a massive volunteer effort. An
imaginative programme saved a further 20 000 healthy birds
from oiling and captured the attention of the world, as people
followed the progress of the penguins on the internet. The
birds were evacuated from Robben and Dassen Islands and
transported to Algoa Bay (Port Elizabeth) before they could
Oil spill response
be affected by the oil spill. Three penguins were fitted with
satellite trackers so their progress could be monitored during
An oil spill disaster can be divided into the following phases:
their return swim of 800 km which took 10-25 days. The
1.Recognition: notification of the spill is received and, if bird
overall mortality during transportation and rehabilitation was
contamination is likely, contingency plans are immediately
less than 5%, compared to 54% during the Apollo Sea spill!
put into action.
2.Recovery: birds are captured and transported to places of
safety.
3.Rehabilitation: birds are cleaned and cared for to restore
them to full health.
4.Release: birds are selected and transported for release
back into the wild.
5.Review: problems and successes are identified and
modifications are made to the contingency plans.
Apollo Sea disaster
On 20 June 1994 the Apollo Sea sank near Dassen Island on
the west coast. Of the 9 600 oiled penguins collected, about
4 400 were released back into the wild. Five years later, 73%
had been resighted at breeding colonies. This represents a
remarkable success rate compared to rehabilitation efforts in
the northern hemisphere, where the average post-release survival rate for most oiled and cleaned seabirds is only six days.
P HOT O: T ONY VAN DA LSE N
in anaemia, while toxins in the bloodstream cause liver and
kidney failure.
Some oils are worse than others - crude oil causes bad feather
clumping and is difficult to clean, while more processed oils
are highly toxic but easier to remove from the plumage.
Oiling also has long-term effects for penguins, because the
initial loss of chicks due to starvation on the nests results in a
gap in recruitment to the breeding population a few years later.
In addition, the moult and breeding cycles of the rehabilitated
birds are disrupted, although studies show that the breeding
success of rehabilitated birds is almost identical to that of
unoiled birds.
The rehabilitation process
Once the oiled birds have been captured, they are tube-fed
The reason for South Africa’s success rate of cleaning oiled birds
is twofold: SANCCOB rehabilitation centre is one of the most
experienced in the world, and the African Penguin (usually the
seabird most affected by oil) is a hardy species that can withstand the vigorous cleaning process. Penguins are flightless
birds so they are relatively easy to catch, but other seabirds such
as cormorants, terns, gannets and gulls can usually only be
an oral rehydration solution, as well as a charcoal/kaolin mix
to absorb oil in the gastrointestinal tract. Thereafter the birds
are stabilised for a few days before washing (immediate
washing results in high mortality rates due to stress). During
this period the primary aim is to get the bird eating proper
meals of good-quality fish as soon as possible, which helps
to rectify any anaemia and restore strength.
caught once they are too weak to escape which means they are
Prior to washing with a gentle detergent, a vegetable oil-
disadvantaged from the beginning of the rehabilitation process.
based solvent is sprayed onto hard, tarry oil. Washing and
Effects of oiling on seabirds
oiling, after which the birds are dried overnight under infra-red
When seabirds are oiled their feathers clump, opening up the
lights. They are then left to recover from the washing process
underlying down to water penetration. The birds soon become
with minimal disturbance.
rinsing takes about an hour depending on the severity of the
cold, waterlogged and unable to swim effectively. Since
penguins must enter the water to feed, oiling can result in death
by starvation or from hypothermia if they are not rescued in
time. In the interim the birds become dehydrated and begin
to metabolise their stored fat, losing up to a third of their
body mass in a week.
Clean birds are released into pens with pools containing
freshwater rather than seawater, as salt crystals forming in
the disturbed plumage would cause irritation. Here the birds
preen, thereby realigning their feathers and coating them in
natural oils. Once the birds have been checked for waterproofing and have passed blood and weight tests, they are
Oil in the eyes of seabirds causes cornea ulceration and
tagged with permanent metal identity tags, boxed and
eventually blindness. Attempts to preen the oiled plumage
transported to a safe release site. The process normally takes
results in oil ingestion, which causes ulcers in the mouth and
at least two weeks.
gastrointestinal tract. Certain elements of the oil that are
absorbed into the blood destroy the red blood cells, resulting
Authors: Meredith Thornton and Sue Matthews September 2000
FURTHER INFORMATION: • Aupiais, L & Glenn, I (Eds). 2000. Spill. Inyati Publishing, Kenilworth
• Barrett, J., Erasmus, Z. & Williams, A. (Eds). 1995. Coastal Oil Spills: Effect on Penguin Communities and Rehabilitation Procedures.
Cape Nature Conservation, Cape Town.
• Payne, A.I.L., Crawford, R.J.M. & Van Dalsen, A. 1989. Oceans of Life off Southern Africa . Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town.
• South African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB): P.O. Box 11-116 Bloubergrant, 7443. Tel. (021) 5576155
• Website of the Avian Demography Unit at the University of Cape Town: www.uct.ac.za/depts/stats/adu
RELATED FACTSHEETS:
• Penguins • Oil Pollution • Ocean Hazards • Gannets • Cormorants • Beach Cleanups
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za
P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T: P O L L U T I O N
Marine Pollution 2F
T
he sea has long been regarded as a watery
discharge about 800 million litres of household and industrial
dustbin into which anything not wanted on
effluent into the sea. A large part of this is sewage, the waste
land can be discarded. The solution to pollution was
its dilution by the vast seas, but the increasing
quantity and toxicity of the waste that has been
pouring into the oceans have made this approach
material from fish factories as well as other food and beverage
factories. Bacteria in the water decompose this organic
waste. But excess quantities of nutrients can cause damage
because the biochemical processes needed to break down
organic waste may use up so much oxygen that the waters
untenable. Natural processes can break down
are rendered lifeless. Legislation has been introduced to
much of the waste discharged into the sea, such as
reduce the discharge of heavily contaminated waste water
rubbish, sewage and even oil, but excess quantities
produced by ‘wet’ off-loading of anchovies – when fish are
of nutrients can damage marine ecosystems. Other
sucked from the boats into the factories in seawater.
pollutants such as plastics and toxic waste are not
Depending on the degree to which household effluent is purified
biodegradable and accumulate in the ocean.
before discharge to the sea, large numbers of pathogens can
end up in coastal waters where they become a health risk.
Mussels and oysters collected near sewage are not fit for
human consumption because of the bacteria and viruses they
Marine pollution is defined as the introduction by humans,
directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine
environment that cause harm to living resources, are hazardous
to human health, hinder marine activities including fishing, or
impair the quality of sea-water or coastal amenities. Marine
pollution can originate on land and be washed or carried into
the ocean; it can be introduced from marine sources or from
contain. Certain toxic substances, such as heavy metals cadmium, copper, zinc and lead, can be discharged in effluent from
industrial plants if discharge is not properly controlled. Marine
pipeline discharges are controlled in terms of the National
Water Act 36 of 1998, which stipulates that a permit is required
and the effluent being discharged must be purified to a standard
determined by the Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry.
the atmosphere.
Land use run-off Run-off from cultivated lands may contain
Land-based sources of marine pollution
80% of marine pollution emanates from land-based sources.
Pipelines Over 60 pipelines along South Africa’s coast daily
phosphates and nitrates from fertilizers, which in moderate
quantities can be beneficial to the marine life, but in large
quantities lead to plankton blooms and oxygen deficiencies
when the plankton decomposes. Insecticides and pesticides
also end up in the sea via rivers.
Storm-water Storm-water flowing into the sea from cities
can contain all kinds of refuse, even metals from car exhausts
and fumes. People are not advised to swim or collect and eat
shellfish such as mussels from areas near storm-water outlets.
Marine sources of pollution
Oil pollution South Africa is situated on one of the world’s
busiest shipping routes and has experienced many oil spills over
the years. Oil-spill contingency plans have been established for
exchange. Man-made pollutants include fluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halogenated hydrocarbons of high
molecular weight. It has been estimated that thousands of
tons of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons are deposited in
South African marine waters annually.
Effects of marine pollution
Although many of the effects of marine pollution are obvious,
such as beach litter, oiling of sea birds, strangulation or
entanglement of marine life, other effects are not as easily seen.
the South African coastline. These plans indicate what should
Insecticides such as DDT and Dieldrin do not dissolve in water,
be done in each area in the event of an oil spill incident. (See
but they do accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals and as
factsheet on Oil Pollution.)
they are long lasting they are passed up the food chain. Female
Plastic pollution Plastic is easy to manufacture, relatively
cheap, durable and light. It is precisely these qualities that
make it such a pollution problem. For not only is it often
seals and dolphins pass these accumulated poisons through
their milk to their offspring. DDT ingested by fish-eating birds,
such as pelicans and fish eagles, can lead to the production of
discarded but it is carried by wind and water from inland
thin eggshells and the subsequent loss of chicks. Unfortunately
and other marine sources. Plastic kills marine animals by
DDT is still the most effective treatment for malaria-carrying
entanglement, suffocation and starvation when it is eaten.
mosquitoes and is still used in South Africa; great care is
It also causes damage to boats. (See factsheet on Plastic
needed to prevent it from getting into the rivers and the sea.
Pollution.)
Plankton typically have short lifecycles and permeable bodies
Dumping from ships Many countries dump land generated
which make them particularly vulnerable to environmental
waste from ships into the sea. Such materials include dredge
damage and toxins. Yet the whole balance of nature ultimately
spoils from harbour maintenance activities, sewage sludge,
depends on plankton in the surface layer of the oceans. Plankton
obsolete equipment and chemical waste. Locally, dumping is
helps to make the air fit to breathe and provides the first link
strictly controlled by the Dumping at Sea Control Act (Act 73
in the marine food chain. If, for example, the ozone were to
of 1980). Under this Act, substances such as mercury and
become so depleted that ultraviolet rays could reach the sea
cadmium are toxic and may not be dumped, and the dumping
with doubled intensity, plankton production might be severely
of arsenic, lead and copper is strictly controlled. Waste currently
impaired. Marine food webs would be disrupted and carbon
dumped at sea include dredge spoils from harbour mainte-
dioxide would rapidly accumulate in the atmosphere, acceler-
nance activities and obsolete equipment. Dumping sites
ating the greenhouse affect and the warming of the earth.
situated in water deeper than 3 000 m have been designated
and no dumping is permitted outside these fixed areas.
Atmospheric sources of pollution
What you can do
Do not litter but recycle as much of your household waste as
possible. Buy environment friendly products and avoid using
Much research has been carried out world-wide on pollution
large quantities of detergents and pesticides. Use unleaded
of the sea from the atmosphere. Pollutants reach the sea via
petrol in vehicles. Be aware that what you discard on land
precipitation (rainfall), contaminated dust and direct gas
can easily be washed or blown into the sea.
FURTHER INFORMATION:
• Buckley, R. (Ed), 1995. Marine pollution The poisoning of the seas. Understanding Global Issues 95/6. European Schoolbooks Publishing ltd, Cheltenham, England
• Marine Pollution (pamphlet), Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2, Rogge Bay.
RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Oil Pollution • Birds and Oil Spills • Plastic Pollution • Harbour Pollution • Beach Clean ups • National Coastal Policy
• Development along the Coast • Global Warming and Sea Level Rise • Nuclear Power and our Coast.
For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,
Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: czm@mcm.wcape.gov.za Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za