1. According to Fitts and Posner, performers pass through
three stages of learning when developing movement skills.
i) Name and use a practical example to explain the
characteristics of each stage of learning. (6)
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Practical example - dribbling
Cognitive – first stage of learning where the player makes mistakes.
Player tries out different ways of dribbling to find the correct
method/player uses trial and error
The dribbling pattern maybe very jerky/lacking fluency
The player had to watch the ball all the time/player uses conscious
thought/thinks about the skill
Associative – Practicing dribbling is important at this stage
The dribbling action is smoother
The player knows when a mistake has been made/kinaesthetic feedback
can be used
The player has to think less about the sub routinesof dribbling/motor
programmes formed
Autonomous – the player does not need to think about the subroutines
as the movement can be performed automatically/movement is
fluent/habitual/efficient
The player can focus on the strategies/tactics
If the situation changes e.g. another player comes close, the player
need to refer back to the previous stage.
Classwork
 Lesson
Date
5 - Learning objective
 Types of guidance and their impact upon
effective performance and
participation.
Visual guidance
This is when the teacher shows the learner
information.
 Guidance is in the form of demonstrations,
which are important as vision is usually the
dominant sense and we learn through
imitation.
 Visual aids, such as video, wall charts
pictures, diagrams and models, can also be
used.
 Demonstrations should be accurate and focus
the learner's attention on the important
aspects.
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Practical example
 The
teacher shows the learner a
demonstration of the overhead clear in
badminton.
Verbal Guidance
 This
is when the teacher tells the
learner information.
 Often used in conjunction with visual
guidance to direct the leaner to the
important cues.
 Should be clear and concise.
 Can be used for tactics and strategies.
Practical example
 The
teacher tells the leaner the
coaching points of the overhead clear.
Manual Guidance
 This
involves the teacher holding and
physically manipulating the learner's
body through the correct pattern of
movement.
Practical example
 The
teacher puts the learner's arm
through the overhead clear so that they
get the feel of the shot.
Mechanical guidance
 This
involves the use of equipment to
help support the leaner and shape the
skill.
Practical example
 The
leaner uses a float in swimming.
Task
 Draw
a table to identify in which phase
of learning each type of guidance is
most appropriate, together with the
advantages & disadvantages of each
type.
Type of
guidance
Most
appropriate
use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Homework
In pairs you will need to explain the
advantages and disadvantages of each
type of practice and devise a practice to
demonstrate this method..
 1. Masses practice
 2. Distributed practice
 3. Fixed practice
 4. Varied practice
 5. Mental practice/ mental rehearsal
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Visual
Used in all stages of learning but is
particularly useful in the cognitive stages.
 Helps learner to form a mental picture of the
skill to be learned; vision is the dominant
sense & we learn through imitation;
demonstrations need to be accurate; can
enable skilled performers to analyse their
performances.
 Not good for complicated or long skills with
too much information; static displays quickly
lose their impact.
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Verbal
Is often used in conjunction with visual
guidance; it is more effective with advanced
performers in the autonomous phase.
 Good for the conveying of detailed &
technical knowledge in the autonomous phase
e.g. strategies & tactics; good to use with
learners in early stages of leaning to direct
them to the important cues in visual guidance.
 Amount of information has to be limited;
learners have to understand the information
and to remember it relate it to the skill; in
complex skills it is difficult to be concise and
the learners get bored.
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Manual
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Useful in the early stages of learning to allow the
learner to gain the kinaesthetic sense of the
movement; is of limited use to the experienced
performer.
Allows the teacher to take the learner's body
through the correct pattern of movement; gives
confidence and ensure safety, particularly in skills
with a danger element.
This form of guidance needs to be removed as soon as
possible so that the leaner does not become
dependent on it; the feel of the movement the leaner
experiences is different to the actual movement & it
is important that the learner does not become
accustomed to this adapted feel; manual guidance is
difficult to give with a group.
Mechanical
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Useful in the early stages of learning to allow the
learner to gain the kinaesthetic sense of the
movement; is of limited use to the experienced
performer.
Allows the leaner to experience the spatial and timing
aspects of the movement; gives confidence and
ensure safety, particularly in skills with a danger
element.
This form of guidance needs to be removed as soon as
possible so that the leaner does not become
dependent on it; the feel of the movement the leaner
experiences is different to the actual movement & it
is important that the learner does not become
accustomed to this adapted feel; mechanical guidance
is designed to eliminate errors & therefore the leaner
does not get to experience and correct mistakes..