The Unification of Italy
Background
• From 1100s to 1800s central Europe was
made up of numerous kingdoms,
principalities, and free cities
• A small group of dedicated Italians and
Germans worked to unify these territories into
nations
• They were inspired by the success of the
American Revolution and the experience of
the Napoleonic Wars
Role of Napoleon in Development of
Italian Nationalism
• Italian Peninsula had not been unified since fall of
Roman Empire
• Most spoke same language, but peninsula divided into
competing states, each with own government
• Napoleon invaded Italy
– United many states under one government
– Unification did not last
– After Napoleon’s defeat, Congress of Vienna split Italian states
• Spirit of nationalism began to rise through Europe
Napoleon
conquered the
Italian peninsula
and created the
puppet Kingdom of
Italy in 1797.
• Napoleon
combined the
smaller Italian
city-states into
larger units to
make his rule more
efficient.
• Opposition to him
as a foreign ruler
stimulated Italian
nationalism.
•
•
Background
• Inspired by NATIONALISM
– The desire for national
independence
– One of the most powerful
forces in Europe during the
1800s
• In 1815 the modern nation of
Italy did not exist
• The Italian Peninsula was
divided into a number of
independent states with
foreign rulers
• After Congress of Vienna
•Austrian Prince Metternich wanted Congress of
Vienna to maintain old Europe, old relationships
•15 years after Congress, old order destroyed beyond
repair
•1800s, nationalism a growing force in Europe,
fostered by decisions made at Congress of Vienna
Impact of Congress of Vienna’s
Decisions
• National Groups Ignored
• Congress had ignored national groups, placing
them under control of large empires; some
empires included different ethnic groups
• Italians split into three groups—much of northern
Italy under Austrian rule, other states under
Hapsburgs, still others under a French ruler
• Italian nationalism grew in opposition to these
conditions
•
The Congress of Vienna (1815) restored the Italian citystates with their pre-Napoleon reactionary
governments. Austria gained control of Lombardy and
Venezia and dominated many of the smaller states.
• The Bourbon dynasty was returned to rule in Naples.
• The Congress of Vienna established a system, the
Concert of Europe, to stop the growth of revolutionary
nationalism set in motion by the French Revolution and
Napoleonic Wars.
•
Background
• Congress of Vienna
– Restoration of the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of
independent governments
• Groups in several Italian states began to push the
idea of a unified Italian state again
– The struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be
waged primarily against the Austrian Empire and the
Habsburgs
• they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking
northeastern part of present day Italy and were the single most
powerful force against unification
• the Austrian Empire fought hard against nationalist sentiment
growing on the Italian peninsula
• Metternich stated that the word Italy was "purely a geographic
expression."
Background
• Pope opposed to Italian unification
– Wanted some measure of autonomy over the
Papal States
• Different groups could not agree on what form
a unified state would take
– Vincenzo Gioberti suggested a confederation of
Italian states under the Pope.
– Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic
– Eventually it was a king and his minister who had
the power to unite the Italian states as a
monarchy
Italian Unification
The Italian tricolor was first established during the Napoleonic Wars by French republics in
northern Italy , who styled it after the French tricolor. In 1848 the design was adopted which
went on to lead the Italian unification. The present flag was adopted in 1946, when Italy
became a republic. Hope--- Faith---- Charity
Divisions in Italy
• Political Divisions
– French Bourbon monarch ruled the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
– Austria controlled Lombardy and Venetia
– Pope controlled the Papal States
• Cultural and Economic Divisions
– Spoke different dialects of the Italian
Language
– Trade barriers and poor transportation
discouraged the flow of goods and people
• The name given to the movement for
Italian unity was Risorgimento
– Meant ‘resurgence’ or ‘revival’
Nationalistic Secret Societies Formed
In Italy
•Italian artists, writers, thinkers became interested
in celebrating Italy’s cultural traditions
•Others formed secret societies to work for political
change, plotted to overthrow Austrian government
in Italy
•Focused on RISORGIMENTO
• The "Risorgimento"
(national unification)
movement grew in
strength after 1815 in
reaction to the Vienna
settlement.
• There was a great deal
of dissatisfaction with
the re-establishment of
many of the old
monarchies.
• The new growing sense
of Italian nationalism
considered the
Habsburgs and
Bourbons as
foreigners.
The Carbonari
The "Carbonari" (carbon burners), a
nationalist society operating in
secret, encouraged the growth of
nationalism.
• The Carbonari were liberals
promoting the establishment of
constitutional monarchies in the
Italian states and were angry at the
Vienna settlement.
• They began to lead nationalist
revolts beginning in 1820.
• The Austrian army crushed these
revolts as the Austrian Foreign
Minister Klemens von Metternich
declared, "Italy is merely a
geographical expression."
•
Early Moves
• Carbonari (coal-burners)
– a secret organization formed in southern Italy early in the 19th
century
– Inspired by the principles of the French revolution, its members
were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals
– Carbonari spread into the Papal States, the kingdom of Sardinia,
the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena and the
kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia
– Many rulers decreed the death penalty for anyone who
attended a Carbonari meeting
– Most leaders of the unification movement were members of
this organization
Mazzini and Young Italy
•1831, popular writer, Giuseppe Mazzini,
launched nationalist group called Young Italy to
fight for unification of Italian states
•Mazzini had been exiled but smuggled patriotic
pamphlets into Italy
•Young Italy attracted tens of thousands of
Italians to cause of unification
Giuseppe Mazzini
Italian Unification
•Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian patriot
spearheaded a national revolutionary movement.
• Mazzini's ideology of an independent integrated
republic spread quickly among large segments of
the Italian people.
• Revolutionary cells formed throughout the
Italian peninsula.
• A patriotic writer who attacks the Papal States.
•Creates a republic, then has to flee country
because French come to the rescue of Pope Pius
IX
"The republic, as I at least
understand it, means association, of
which liberty is only an element, a
necessary antecedent. It means
association, a new philosophy of life,
a divine Ideal that shall move the
world, the only means of
regeneration vouchsafed to the
human race."
Giuseppe Mazzini
Giuseppe Mazzini
• A member of the Carbonari
• Activity in revolutionary movements got him in trouble
• Organized La giovine Italia (Young Italy)
– A political society
– its basic principle was the union of the several states and kingdoms of the
peninsula into a single republic
• Believed that Italian unification could only be achieved through a
popular uprising
• His importance was more ideological than practical
• Credited with fashioning the political idea that Italy was a country
more than a patchwork of antiquated Roman city-states
• It would be others who would make this idea a reality though
• Never accepted a monarchical united Italy and continued to work
for a democratic republic
Giuseppe Mazzini
• Bold and active leader in fight
for Italian independence
• Most effective speaker
• Founded a secret society called
Young Italy in 1831
– Goal : to transform Italy into an
independent sovereign nation.
Giuseppe Mazzini
• Believed the nation-state was very
important
– Nation-state : a political organization
consisting of one nationality rather
than several nationalities
• Through the nation state people
could be unified in one country
with common ideals
• This country could best contribute
their efforts to the well-being of all
its citizens
Giuseppe Mazzini –
“The Heart”
• Grassroots unification
• Italian Risorgimento
What were Mazzini’s aims?
Encouraged
people to see
themselves
as part of a
nation
Had concept of ‘Third Rome’ – a
civilising influence on the world
Wanted
democratic
independent
Italian Republic
Nationalism
• "A country is not merely a geographic territory.... A
country is the sense of love which unites as one all the
sons and daughters of that geographic territory. So long as
a single person amongst you has no vote to represent him
in the development of the national life; so long as there is
one person left to vegetate in ignorance while others are
educated; so long as a single person that is able and
willing to work languishes in poverty through lack of a
job, you have no country in the sense in which a country
ought to exist. The right to vote, education, and
employment are the three main pillars of a nation. The
life of your country will be immortal so long as you are
ready to die for your fellow men and women. “
• From Giuseppe Mazzini: A Memoir by E. A. Venturi.
What were Mazzini’s methods?
‘Education and
revolution’
Constitutional
monarchies seen as
stop-gap only
Sought support from
young educated middle
class
Italian people to drive
the Austrians out
Hoped that publicity and propaganda would
create revolutionary class
How big an impact did Mazzini have on
the Unification of Italy?
•
•
•
•
Gave encouragement to Italian patriotism
Presented new view of Italy
Inspired Garibaldi to join movement
Helped to win international publicity for
Italian freedom. Defence of Rome in 1849 was
heroic failure
• By his actions put pressure on Cavour and
others to act more positively
How successful was Mazzini?
• Had little practical experience
• Overestimated level of support – ignored problems
of the peasants
• Support was limited – used Carbonari methods
• All his plots failed!
• Some middle class alienated by his revolutionary
stance
• Made no attempt to win support from peasants and
town workers
1830
• Rrevolutionary sentiment in favor of a unified Italy
began to grow
• Insurrections took place throughout the Papal States
– Chose the tri-color as their flag
• Insurrected provinces planned to unite as the
Province Italiane unite
– Pope Gregory XVI asked for Austrian help against the
rebels
• Spring of 1831
– Austrian army began its march across the Italian peninsula
– crushed resistance in each province that had revolted
• The election of the
supposedly liberal
Pope Pius IX in 1846
raised hopes for Papal
support for
unification.
• The "Neo-Guelfs", led
by individuals such as
Vincenzo Gioberti,
favored the unification
of Italy under the
Pope, and Pius IX
appeared to be the
leader that many of
the liberal
monarchists hoped for.
1848
• Revolutions all over Italy
• Results
• Only successful revolt was in Sardinia
• Rulers forced to grant new constitution; Sardinia
remained independent
• One of most important leaders of Italian
unification emerged, Camillo di Cavour
• Founded nationalist newspaper, Il Risorgimento—
“resurgence” or “rebirth”
1848 Revolutions inItaly
•1848, nationalist-inspired revolutions spread
throughout Europe
•In some Italian states, citizens rebelled against
Austrian rule
– Piedmont declared war against Austria, fought for
year, was defeated
– Others seized Rome, 1849; French troops helped
pope regain control
Early Attempts
• January 1848 – Mazzini inspired nationalists
led a republican revolution in Sicily
• Some weeks later larger revolutions were
staged in France and Austria
• This sparked uprisings throughout the Italian
Peninsula
• Fighting began against Austrian forces
• King Charles Albert of the Kingdom of Sardinia
joined the war to expel the foreigners
The Orsini Bomb Plot!
• In January 1848 Felice
Orsini attempted to
assassinate Napoleon
III
• Hoped that this would
aid Italian unity
• Did spur Napoleon III
into action
• Agreement made via
Compact of
Plombieres
Early Attempts
• April 1848 – Italian forces had almost succeeded
in driving the Austrians from the peninsula
• Pope Pius IX said he opposed the war and
suddenly withdrew his troops
• Naples followed the Pope and withdrew their
forces as well
• This withdrawal enabled Austria to defeat the
army of Charles Albert
• Austria reestablished its control over Lombardy
and Venetia
Napoleon III and Italian Unity
• Former member of
the Carbonari
• His troops had
crushed Roman
Republic in 1849
• Had his own reasons
for aiding Piedmont
• Probably favoured
federation headed by
Pope
•
• The Revolution of 1848-49 brought a
brief hope for the unification
movement.
• Piedmont-Sardinia emerged as the
leader as its native Italian (Savoy)
monarchy granted a more liberal
constitution.
• Brief successes by liberals
attempting to establish republican
governments were followed by
defeats.
• Republics with liberal constitutions
were established in Rome by
Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi and
also in Venice by Daniele Manin.
Liberal leader of Sicily and Tuscany.
• Constitutions were also granted in
the principalities
Early Attempts
• The Pope’s withdrawal infuriated Italian
nationalists
• November 1848 – Angry mobs forced the
pope to flee the city
• Nationalists proclaimed Rome a republic
• They summoned Mazzini to the capital as the
head of the government
• Pope Pius IX condemned the liberalnational unification movement after being
ousted from Rome and the rule of the Papal
States.
• Austria and France, the two major Catholic
powers, also opposed the revolts.
• Austrian troops invaded Lombardy and
Venezia restoring Austrian rule.
• The Roman Republic was defeated and the
Pope was restored to full power when
French troops were sent in by Louis
Napoleon Bonaparte, the newly-elected
President of the French Republic.
• The need for Great Power support and
outside military aid for the nationalist
movement was apparent.
Early Attempts
• The expulsion of the Pope aroused the
Catholic governments of Naples, Spain, and
France
• Louis-Napoleon sent a French army to Rome
• His troops occupied the city and restored the
pope to power
• The events of 1848 caused many to lose faith
in Mazzini’s revolutionary methods
Early Attempts
• The Italian people
became more
conservative and turned
to Charles Albert
• Charles Albert earned
their respect with is brave
stand against the
Austrians
• Nationalists now looked
to Sardinia to lead the
struggle for Italian
unification
King Victor Emmanuel II,
House of Savoy
• Only native Italian
monarch in Italy
Victor Emmanuel II
Victor Emmanuel II
• Became king of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1849
– father abdicated after an overwhelming military defeat by
the Austrians
– Victor Emmanuel was immediately able to obtain a rather
favorable armistice at Vignale by the Austrian commander
– In 1849 he also fiercely suppressed the revolt in Genoa,
defining the rebels as a "vile and infected race of cowards
• In 1852 Victor Emmanuel II gave Count Camillo di
Cavour the title of Prime Minister
• Victor Emmanuel II soon became the symbol of the
Italian Risorgimento
Count Camillo di Cavour
• Kingdom of Sardinia
• 1852, Cavour became prime minister of independent Kingdom of Sardinia
• Believed thriving economy important for Italy to be reborn
• Economy
• Cavour worked to build Sardinian economy
• Believed Italy should be reborn as monarchy
• Ally
• Cavour in position to cultivate powerful ally
• Supported France in war with Russia; gave France provinces of Savoy,
Nice
• France agreed to support Sardinia in war against Austria
• 1860, northern Italian states liberated from control of Austrian Empire
Camillo di Cavour –
“The Brain”
• Prime Minister of
Sardinia
• A liberal – wanted to
make Sardinia a model of
progress, efficiency, and
fair government for
others to admire
• Tried to improve the
economy
Camillo di Cavour –
“The Brain”
• Didn’t idealize war, but
willing to use war to
unify Italy – Crimean War
(1855-1856)
– Reorganized and
strengthened Sardinian
army
• Main architect of Italian
unification
...We shall not have long to wait for our
opportunity...I have faith that Italy will
become one state and will have Rome
for its capital...But remember, among
my political friends no one believes the
enterprise possible…
-Cavour, in a letter to La Farina, Secretary of the Italian
National Society, September 1857
Count Camillo di Cavour
• In 1847, became a political journalist with his newspaper Il Risorgimento
in Turin
• Gave a speech in front of many journalists in favor of a constitution for
Piedmont, which was eventually granted
• Never really favoured the establishment of a united country
– favored an expanded Piedmont rather than a unified Italy
– like most Italians he resented the control that Austria had over the
country
• when an uprising in Milan against the Austrians occurred in 1849,
Cavour was one of many who advocated the war that followed as
the chance to expell the Austrians once and for all
• the war was unsuccessful for the Piedmontese
• Cavour was finally brought in to the Chamber of Deputies, sitting
on the right as a conservative
• gained a reputation as a non-revolutionary progressive
• Cavour lost an election but was then brought back into Parliament
• Cavour soon came to dominate the cabinet
• Became Prime Minister of Piedmont on 4 November 1852
. . . Nationalism has become general;
it grows daily; and it has already
grown strong enough to keep all
parts of Italy united despite the
differences that distinguish them.
Cavour, 1846
Count Cavour’s Diplomacy
• 1849 – Victor Emmanuel II, Charles
Albert’s son, became king of Sardinia
• Victor Emmanuel II toiled to keep
popular support for the unity
movement alive
• He had an adviser named Count
Camillo di Cavour who helped him
greatly in his efforts to unify
• Cavour was said to be ‘squat…potbellied form; small stumpy legs, round
arms”
Cavour
Count Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of
the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1852 .
It was his leadership and accommodating policies
that led to the unification of Italy in little more than a
decade.
Cavour was able to persuade Napoleon to a secretly
planned war against Austria.
By early 1859, Cavour had caused a crisis that
provoked the Austrians to send an ultimatum
demanding Piedmontese disarmament.
As part of the "plan", Cavour rejected the ultimatum
which led to the subsequent war with the Austrians.
The French came to the aid of the Piedmontese and
the Austrians were defeated.
The Austrians were forced to surrender Lombardy, to
Napoleon III.
Finally, in 1859, Napoleon transferred Lombardy to
the sovereignty of Victor Emmanuel II. Conquers the
Northern area
Count Cavour’s Diplomacy
• Defeat of Sardinia in 1848 convinced Cavour that the
kingdom needed the aid of a foreign power to expel
Austria
• Cavour decided to support France and Britain in the
Crimean War
• He wanted to get their help in return
• By sending an army to Crimea Cavour established a
claim to equality with other warring nations
• Sardinia also won admittance to the Congress of Paris
• This settled many treaty matters after the war
Cavour – Foreign Policy
• Aware of shortcomings of ‘Italia fara da se’
• Aimed to move Austrians out of Lombardy &
Venetia
• As PM had considerable control over foreign
policy
• 1854 – outbreak of Crimean War: Britain &
France vs Russia
• 15,000 troops sent to support France & GB
Count Cavour’s Diplomacy
• Cavour was a bold, intelligent man of great
personal charm
• By 1854 Cavour dominated Sardinia’s council
of ministers
• Major goals
– Promotion of rapid industrial growth
– Reduction of the Catholic Church’s influence
– Advancement of Sardinia’s national interests in
foreign affairs
Cavour and the Crimean War
• Some doubt over motivation but perhaps
aimed to gain support from GB & France
• Troops played only minor role but did win
respect & gratitude from allies
• Congress of Paris (1856) dealt with peace
negotiations
• Cavour not directly involved in talks
The Crimean War
•
The Crimean War, 1853-1856, sent
an alliance of European nations
against Russia. PiedmontSardinia declared war on Russia
and joined Britain and France in
their alliance.
• The Kingdom of Sardinia
contributed little to the war
effort, but its support gained the
favor of the British and especially
the French for the nationalist
cause.
• Cavour gained the opportunity to
bring up the subject of Italian
unification at the Paris Peace
Conference of 1856 hosted by
Napoleon III.
• Cavour encouraged the investment of
foreign capital from countries such as
Britain and France to develop industry in
Piedmont.
• Britain and France now had a financial
interest in Italian unification and the
elimination of all Austrian influence from
the Italian peninsula.
• Public opinion mounted in Britain and
France in favor of the unification of Italy.
• Britain stood to gain increased trade
from an independent Italy.
• France wanted to weaken Austria,
especially after 1858, hoping to gain new
territory in northwestern Italy.
The secret Treaty of
Plombières was signed in
1858 between PiedmontSardinia and France.
• Napoleon III agreed to join
Piedmont-Sardinia in a war
against Austria.
• In return for its support,
France would receive a major
portion of the province of
Savoy including the city of
Nice.
•
Cavour wins support
• Foreign support & diplomacy seen as main
successes
• Also important was link with National Society
• Number of its leaders beginning to accept
Piedmont as focus for unification
• Cavour now looked to France for help against
Austria
• The combined armies of France and
Piedmont-Sardinia defeated Austria
at the battles of Magenta and
Solferino in June 1859.
• This second War of Italian
Independence drove Austria out of
Lombardy which was then annexed
by Piedmont-Sardinia.
• The pro-Austrian rulers of Parma,
Tuscany, Modena, and Romagna were
deposed later in 1859.
• Fearing a Prussian entry into the war
to aid Austria and after a negative
reaction from the French people
because of the high losses to the French
army, Napoleon III signed a separate
peace with Austria and withdrew from
the war before Venezia could be
liberated.
• France received the territory of Savoy
in return for its support. A plebiscite
was held in Nice in 1860 resulting in its
union with France.
War with Austria
• 1859 War provoked with Austria
• French (with limited help from Piedmont)
won 2 closely fought victories
• Austria on brink of surrender
• Napoleon III now pulled put of the war – Truce
of Villafranca!
• Cavour was furious – resigned as PM
•
War
of
1859
Sardinia-Piedmont still sought expansion across Italy
– Cavour saw that Piedmont would not be able to do it alone
– hoped to secure aid from Britain and France in expelling the Austrians
• Attempted to gain western favor by supporting them in the Crimean War
– not successful
– Italian matters were ignored at the Congress of Paris
• On January 14, 1858, an Italian nationalist Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate
Napoleon III
– In a plea written from his prison cell, Orsini appealed to Napoleon III to fulfill
his destiny by aiding the forces of Italian nationalism
– Napoleon III became convinced that it was his destiny to do something for
Italy
• Summer of 1858
– Cavour met with Napoleon III and signed a secret agreement
– agreed to a joint war against Austria
– Piedmont would gain the Austrian territories in Italy (Lombardy and Venetia),
as well as the Duchies of Parma and Modena
– France would be rewarded with Piedmont's transalpine territories of Savoy
and Nice
– Cavour was to provoke the Austrians into aggression by encouraging
revolutionary activity in Lombardy
War with Austria
• 1858 – Cavour met secretly
with Napoleon III at Plombieresles-Bains in France
• Napoleon III promised to aid
Sardinia in expelling Austria if
Sardinia was at war
• Sardinia agreed to give the
provinces of Savoy and Nice to
France if the were victorious
over Austria
War with Austria
• Cavour forced Austria to declare
war against Sardinia
– He did this by encouraging
nationalist groups in Lombardy to
revolt
– Sardinia’s army supported the
rebels and refuse to withdraw
when Austria asked
• Napoleon III led in a force or
120,000 French soldiers to aid
Sardinia
• The combined French and
Sardinian forces defeated
Austria at Magenta and
Solferino
War with Austria
• The French suffered heavy losses
• Napoleon III feared loss of support at home if
fighting continued
• Napoleon III withdrew from the fighting and
signed a treaty with Emperor Francis Joseph of
Austria, without consulting Cavour
• The treaty gave Lombardy to Sardinia and
Austria still retained control of Venetia
War with Austria
• Cavour was furious upon
reading the treaty
• He insisted that Victor
Emmanuel II continue to fight
• Emmanuel refused, believing
that victory was impossible
without the French
• Fighting did not stop,
however
War of 1859
• The war itself was quite short
• Battle of Magenta
– French and Sardinians were victorious over the
Austrian army
– Austrians withdrew from most of Lombardy
• Battle of Solferino
– bloody engagement
– French were again victorious
– Austrians withdrew behind the Quadrilateral of
fortresses on the borders of Venetia
Results of War of 1859
• Napoleon III meets with Franz Josef
– Sardinia-Piedmont takes Lombardy, no other
changes
• Smaller northern Italian states form the
United Provinces of Central Italy
– Napoleon III agrees to their incorporation into
Sardinia-Piedmont after compensation of Savoy
and Nice being transferred to France
War with Austria
• People in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the papal
province of Romagna overthrew their rulers
• Their new governments demanded their right to
unite with Sardinia
• Cavour needed to gain Napoleon III’s consent for
the unification
– He gave Savoy and Nice to France to be granted
permission to unify new governments with Sardinia
• In April 1860 Victor Emmanuel II accepted the
territories into his kingdom
By the Treaty of Turin
signed in 1860, the
northern Italian states
of Parma, Modena and
the Romagna agreed to
their annexation by
Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Victor Emmanuel II,
King of Sardinia, ruled
with Camillo di Cavour
as his Prime Minister
in 1860.
•
•
1860
• Only four states remain in Italy
– Sardinia-Piedmont
– Venetia
– Papal States
– Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
Ferdinand II
• Southern Italy remained
isolate from the
revolutionary fever that
was sweeping the rest
of the peninsula
• Ferdinand II – Ruler of
the Kingdom of Two
Sicilies
• After Ferdinand’s death,
Italian nationalists
prepared for a
revolution
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Guiseppe Garibaldi
• Sword of Italy
• Many Italians consider Cavour “brain” of Italian unification, Mazzini
“heart”
• Giuseppe Garibaldi has been called “sword” of Italy
• Garibaldi joined Young Italy movement, 1833
• Exile
• Nationalist activities forced Garibaldi to flee Italy twice
• Learned techniques of guerilla warfare while living in South America
• Returned to Italy often to continue fight to free Italy from Austrian
domination
• Return
• 1854, Garibaldi returned for good
• Cavour asked to lead part of Sardinian army in war against Austria
• After bitter fighting, Austrians agreed to give up Lombardy, retaining
Venetia
Guiseppe Garibaldi –
“The Sword”
• “Hero of Two Worlds”
• Red Shirts
Giuseppe Garibaldi
• Great romantic figure
of the Risorgimento
• Charismatic guerrilla
leader
• Had distinguished
himself in the defence
of Rome
• Was a follower of
Mazzini
Giuseppe Garibaldi
• In 1833, met Giuseppe Mazzini
• Joined the Young Italy movement and the Carbonari revolutionary association
• In February 1834 he participated in a failed Mazzinian insurrection in Piedmont,
was sentenced to death, and fled
• Garibaldi left for Brazil and took up the cause of independence of the Republic of
Rio Grande do Sul
• Joined the rebels against the newly independent Brazilian nation
• Returned to Italy in 848
– served the king of Sardinia
– after disagreements, he & followers crossed into Lombardy where they
offered assistance to the provisional government of Milan
• Roman Republic under threat from French forces
– Garibaldi took up the command of the defense of Rome
– city fell on June 30, 1849
– Garibaldi was forced to flee
• Moved to the USA then to the UK
Garibaldi
• The leader of the Southern
Italian Nationalists
• Charismatic military
commander
• Forced into exile after
taking part in the 1830
uprisings
• He fled to South America
• He became an expert in
guerrilla warfare
• Garibaldi returned to Italy in
1848 and took part in
Mazzini’s short-lived Roman
Republic
Garibaldi
By this time, Garibaldi had separated politically from Mazzini, and had formed an alliance with
Victor Emmanuel II, the king of Sardinia, and his premier Cavour.
Given Garibaldi's popularity and large following, thousands of Italians gave their allegiance to the
Sardinian monarch.
The Red Shirts-- Attacks from the South
Garibaldi's dream of a united Italy motivated his successful expedition against the Austrian forces in
the Alps in 1859.
In 1860 he conquered Sicily and set up a provisional government.
Garibaldi then conquered Naples, which he then delivered to Victor Emmanuel in 1861.
A united Italy was finally established in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel as its king.
The Italian kingdom was missing Rome, which was still a papal possession, and Venice,
which was controlled by the Austrians.
Venice was added to Italy in 1866 after Prussia defeated Austria in the Seven Weeks' War, in which
Italy sided with Prussia; Venice was its reward.
Then, in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III withdrew his troops from Rome. With
the city of Rome and the remaining Papal States left unprotected, Italian troops moved into Rome
without opposition.
Rome voted for union with Italy in October 1870 and, in July 1871, Rome became the capital
of a united Italy.
Garibaldi
• After the fall of Mazzini’s Republic, Garibaldi
fled to the United States
• Garibaldi returned to Italy in 1860
• He sensed that the people of the Kingdom of
Two Sicilies were ready to revolt
• He collected volunteers in Genoa and set out
for Sicily
• He named his forces The Red Shirts, the color
of their uniforms
Garibaldi’s Red Shirts and their Success
in Southern Italy
• Followers known as Red Shirts because of colorful
uniforms
• By July 1860, using guerilla warfare, Garibaldi, Red
Shirts gained control of island of Sicily
• September, Garibaldi, Sardinian troops conquered
Naples
• Red Shirts now controlled southern part Italian
peninsula
• Garibaldi offered Kingdom of Two Sicilies to Sardinian
king Victor Emmanuel
Garibaldi
• In a few weeks he gained
control of the island
• After seizing the island,
Garibaldi crossed the
mainland and advanced
toward Naples
• The army of the Kingdom of
Two Sicilies proved no math
for Garibaldi’s Red Shirts
• Naples fell, and the king of the
Two Sicilies fled
Initial Unification
• Combined army of Garibaldi and Victor
Emmanuel finally defeats the army of the Two
Sicilies
– King of Two Sicilies abdicates
• Two Sicilies united with Sardinia-Piedmont in
an Italian state
– Only Papal States and Venetia remain outside the
union
Final Steps Towards Unification
• 1861, territories held elections, all agreed to unification
• Holdouts were Venetia, still belonging to Austria; Papal
States, under French troops supporting pope
• 1866, Prussia defeated Austria, gave Venetia to Italy
• 1870, Prussia forced French to withdraw from Rome
• Italian troops entered Rome, completed unification
under King Victor Emmanuel
Moves on Rome
• French troops staioned in Rome to support
the pope
• Garibaldi demands that Italian state attack
Rome
– Italy refuses
• Garibaldi, with 2,000 volunteers moves on
Rome but is barred by Italian troops
• Victor Emmanuel II reaches agreement with
Napoleon III for French to leave by 1866
Rome
• French troops move back into Rome
• Various threats to Rome by Italian groups from
1866 – 1870
• With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of
1870, France returns troops to France to fight in
the war
• Italy takes Rome after French defeat at Sedan
• Pope withdraws inside Vatican
• Rome becomes capital of Italy
The Fall of Garibaldi
• Garibaldi’s successes in the south made
Cavour nervous
• Cavour sent an army into the papal states
• Cavour’s army defeated the papal army at
Castelfidardo
Garibaldi & the Campaign of 1861
• Hi-jacked the popular revolt in Sicily
• Used great cunning to gain control of the
island
• His ‘1000 Red Shirts’ gained more and more
support
• Had more problems on the mainland but was
successful in defeating King of Naples
• Handed his conquests over to Victor
Emmanuel II
A contemporary
British cartoon,
entitled "Right Leg
in the Boot at
Last," shows
Garibaldi helping
Victor Emmanuel
put on the Italian
boot.
The Fall of Garibaldi
• Voters in Southern Italy began
to support union with Sardinia
in October 1860
• Garibaldi saw this support and
surrendered his conquests to
Victor Emmanuel II
• By February 1861 the whole
peninsula, excluding Rome and
Venetia, was united under one
government
• Victor Emmanuel II was now
king of the newly created
constitutional monarchy of
Italy.
Problems in the New Nation
• Three months after the unification of Italy,
Cavour died
• The north and south were still separated
culturally and economically
• There was a huge gap in the standards of
living between the two regions
• This gap fueled discontent and hampered
unification efforts
Challenges Facing Unified Italy
•Strong regional differences led to lack of unity
•Southern Italians resented being governed by Rome
•Catholic Church did not recognize Italy as legitimate nation
•Poverty serious problem, caused many to emigrate
•1880s, large numbers left Italy, many for Americas
•Unemployment, rising taxes led to rioting, violence
•Voting reform a major priority
•1870, only wealthiest Italian men could vote
•By late 1800s most adult male taxpayers could vote
Problems in the New Nation
• Sardinia often tried to force its laws and
customs onto the other Italian states
• This only encouraged resentment and
discontent
• The government finally developed a unified
military and a national education system
• Railroads were built, linking Italy with the rest
of Europe
Final Steps to Unification
• Most Italian’s believed that Rome should be
the capital of the new nation
• Rome was not a part of the nation of Italy
though
• It was ruled by the pope
• In addition, the Austrians still ruled Venetia
• Italy needed foreign help to remove Austria
from Venetia, it called upon Prussia
Final Steps to Unification
• In 1866 Italy allied itself with Prussia in a war
against Austria
• In return, Prussia promised to give Venetia to
Italy
• Austria defeated Italian forces in the conflict,
but Prussia emerged victorious
• Prussia gave Venetia to Italy
Italy 1861-1870
• Kingdom of Italy declared – Victor Emmanuel
II ‘by the grace of God and the rule of the
people’
• First parliament met in Turin, March 1861
• 1866 VE II anxious to prove Italian military
prowess
• 2 shattering defeats followed – no support
from Venetians!
Italy 1861-1870 (2)
• Venetia occupied after Austrian defeat – voted
to join with Italy
• Garibaldi made 2 failed attempts to seize
Rome (1862, 1867) – little support from the
Romans
• 1870 Franco-Prussian War saw withdrawal of
French garrison
• Pius XI soon withdrew to the Vatican
Final Steps to Unification
• Foreign help was also involved
in retrieving Rome for Italy
• Napoleon III had withdrawn
troops that had been protecting
Rome during his war with
Prussia
• This gave Italian troops the
opportunity to seize Rome for
their own
• In 1871, Victor Emmanuel II
moved the national capital from
Florence to Rome
• The political unification of Italy
was finally complete
How united was Italy by 1870?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bad relations with the Papacy
Lack of common language
Spread of Piedmontese constitution caused conflict
Franchise restricted – ½ million/22 million
Liberal aims had little in common with peasantry
Severe economic problems
‘Brigands’ War’ in the South for many years
Political system did not develop well
Mazzini’s verdict on Italy, 1871
• Italian territory under foreign control
• Foreigners had played too important a role in
unification
• Unhappy with new constitution
Italian Unification Timeline
1859 – War
With Austria,
Italy gets
Lombardy with
help of
Napoleon III
Revolution of 1848
1852 – Cavour becomes
Prime Minister of Sardinia
1860 –
Garibaldi
and the
“Red
Shirt”
Land in
Sicily
1866: 7 Weeks’ War, Italy sides
with Prussia & receives Venice
•1861- Victor Emmanuel II
Proclaimed “King of Italy”
•Cavour dies
1870 FrancoPrussian
War,
Italy takes
Rome
ITALY
UNIFIED
1871: Rome
proclaimed
capital
of unified
Italy
•
•
•
•
•
In 1870, the Franco-Prussian war began and the last
French troops protecting the Pope were withdrawn.
The Italian army moved into Rome and the Law of
Papal Guarantees (1871) was passed by the Italian
legislature giving the Pope complete spiritual
authority in Italy and also giving sovereign
diplomatic recognition to the Vatican.
However, the Law was rejected by Pope Pius IX and
all succeeding popes until 1929.
Pius IX refused to leave his only remaining territory,
the Vatican district within the city of Rome, because
that would be a recognition of the nation of Italy and
the 1870 settlement.
Pope Pius IX thus became the "Prisoner of the
Vatican". Four other popes would follow this tradition
until the signing of the Lateran Pact in 1929.
• The most ardent
nationalists still saw
territory in the north
along the border with
Austria that they called
"Italia Irredenta",
unredeemed Italy, that
they believed rightfully
belonged to the nation
of Italy and should be
under Italian rule.
• This territory would
play a major role in
Italy's entry into World
War I in 1915.
Italy Today
• The Lateran Treaty of 1929
created a separate sovereign
Vatican state and the Catholic
Church recognized the
sovereignty of the nation of
Italy.
• Italy, under the rule of the
Fascist dictator Benito
Mussolini at the time,
recognized Catholicism as Italy's
official religion and gave the
Catholic Church a major role in
the Italian public school system.
• In 1929, Pope Pius XI became
the first pope to leave the
Vatican after his coronation
since 1870.