Presented at Barcelona
March, 2007
Willingness to Communicate:
crossing the psychological
Rubicon from learning to
communication.
Peter D. MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada
Where is Nova Scotia?
Where is Cape Breton University?
Willingness to Communicate


Why do some choose to use L2, others do not?
Two points of departure this morning:






The emerging importance of time in ID models
Pyramid model of WTC
Volition


Language anxiety
Language learning motivation
We will extract ‘kernels of wisdom’ along the way
4 Studies
Future Directions
Language anxiety
“Worry and Emotionality (usually negative)
associated with L2 learning”

3 levels of concepts
 Trait
 Situation-specific
 State

3 levels of prediction
 Poor
 Very good
 Not well known
Kernel #1: The relationships among variables under study in SLA
may change substantially when concepts are defined at different levels
of abstraction (e.g., state, situation-specific or trait levels).
Motivation

Gardner’s SE model
 Motivated
student shows
(1) desire to learn, (2)effort, and (3)
enjoyment
 Integrative Motive combines cognitive,
affective and behavioural elements
 Focus on intergroup attraction
Integrative motivation:
Integrativeness
Attitudes toward
the learning
situation
other
other
Motivation
Language
Achievement
Language Aptitude
Intergroup attraction

Intergroup attraction has been captured by
concepts such as:
 international
posture (Yashima),
 xenophilic and sociocultural orientations (Clément,
Dornyei, & Noels, 1994),
 acculturation processes (Schumann, 1986),
 interest in the target language and people (Ushioda,
2001).
Kernel #2: The major motivation to learn another language is to develop
a communicative relationship with people from another cultural group.
Critics of the Canadian approach

Three key papers:
 Crookes & Schmidt, 1991
 Dornyei, 1994
 Oxford and Shearin, 1994


Accused Canadian models of dominating
research approach
Dominant in two senses
 leading
 oppressive


Issues unique to Canadian social context
Other issues should be studied, other cultures
Expansion of motivation concepts
in SLA
Self-determination theory (Noels)
 Physiological approaches (Schummann)
 Learner Autonomy (Ushioda)
 Task Motivation (Julkunen)
 Process Model (Dornyei & Otto)
 L2 Motivational Self System (Dornyei)
 Critical-Qualitative Perspective (Norton)

But… can’t we all just get along?
“I have now come to believe that many of
the controversies and disagreements in L2
motivation research go back to an
insufficient temporal awareness…
that different or even contradictory theories
do not exclude one another, but may
simply be related to different phases of the
motivated behavioral process.”
(Dörnyei, 2003, p. 18)
Time
Different motivational processes occur
before, during, and after behavior.
 Motivational approaches will implicate a
time frame, for example


Focus on longer lasting process (integrative)
 Focus on rapidly changing events (tasks)
Kernel #3:The manner in which motivation affects language learning
changes as the time frame under study changes.
Time in sharp focus
Particular interest in the point in time
where one decides to take action.
 Crossing the Rubicon (Dörnyei & Otto)





Roman army could not cross Rubicon river, act of war
Julius Caesar led his army across
Civil war ensued
Taken to imply an irrevocable, dangerous course of action
Language learner Rubicon(s):

Do I raise my hand to answer a question?



Do I offer assistance to a second language speaker?



I should try, I must talk in order to learn, but…
What if I make a mistake, what will others think?
I should help if I can, it’s an opportunity for L2 contact, but…
Can I make myself understood, will somebody with better L2
skill help instead?
Do I try to use the second language in conversation?


I want to say something, I want to talk to that person, but…
What course might the conversation take, what embarrassment
awaits?
Does a learner speak when the
opportunity arises?

A collision of motivation and language
anxiety


implicates other process as well
Question bridges

interpersonal communicative processes
 intergroup contact
 educational process of language learning
Willingness to communicate
“Pyramid model”

Layered heuristic model
 Captures time and concept specificity
 Proximal – distal continuum
 At the top is the decision point,


akin to crossing the Rubicon to initiate communication.
The shape is useful as a reminder of time


There is not a beginning point
we constantly arrive at a point in time when we can act
1
Layer I
L2
Use
Communication
Behaviour
2
Layer II
Behavioural Intention
Willingness to
Communicate
3 4
Layer III
Desire to
State
communicate with Communicative
a specific person Self-Confidence
5
Layer IV
Interpersonal
Motivation
8
6
Intergroup
Motivation
9
Situated Antecedents
7
L2
Self-Confidence
Motivational
Propensities
10
Layer V
Intergroup
Attitudes
Layer
VI
Social
Situation
Communicative
Competence
11 12
Intergroup Climate
Personality
Affective-Cognitive Context
Social and Individual
Context
WTC concept
Original L1 concept was ‘trait-like’
 Our concept proposes a ‘state’ of
readiness
 Initiating communication is a matter of
choice
 Volitional act

Volition
Long history in psychology and philosophy
 Concept all but abandoned as issues of
‘free will’ were found intractable
 Offers the potential to study how multiple,
sometimes contradictory impulses, affect
action

Kernel #4: Studying volitional choices demonstrates that opposing
processes (e.g., approach and avoidance) converge to affect second
language communication.
Four studies on the process of
initiating communication

MacIntyre, Babin & Clément (1999)

Based on Zakahi & McCroskey (1989)
 Pretest WTC
 Communication in L1 in a lab setting


Oral & written, easy and difficult tasks
Those who came to the lab had higher WTC
 WTC predicted the initiation of
communication in both oral and written forms.
WTC and vocabulary learning






High School students given a 15-item vocabulary list
(nouns, mostly animals)
Half studied along, half in small groups
More important was familiarity with study situation
In familiar conditions, introverts learned more and were
more WTC than extraverts
In moderately unfamiliar conditions, extraverts learned
more and were more WTC than introverts
In unfamiliar situations, there was no difference
Effects of Extraversion and Familiarity of Study Situation
25
20
Posttest
Score
15
Introvert
Extrovert
10
State WTC
5
0
Very Similar
Somew hat Similar
Not at all Similar
Two Focused Essay Studies
Baker & MacIntyre (2000)
 200 English speaking students learning French,
regular and immersion programs
 Described 2 situations



most willing
least willing
We looked for themes and noticed emotional
expression
Most willing

Immersion students had weaker emotional reactions in
these situations than non-immersion students

Non-immersion students were pleased with small
successes:
“My father has a tailoring and bridal shop… and one day a
French speaking lady came in and my Dad’s wife can
speak French but she was off that day, so I was able to
help her [the lady] out enough so that she would come
back.”
Least Willing


Immersion students expressed stronger emotion
in these situations
In both immersion and non-imm., the type of
event that upset them most was a Francophone
interlocutor switching to English

a dramatic rejection of volitional self-presentation, it
is ignominious
 unexpectedly, many reported this was a motivating
experience
Second Focused Essay Study
Again used Most / Least Willing
 Over 100 Anglophone and Francophone
students in Ottawa



strongly bilingual institution, bilingual city
Typically, Francophones have higher more
experience speaking English than
Anglophones have speaking French
Most Willing

Anglophones most willing in situations where the only other choice
was silence (25% of situations described)


Interlocutor was expected to speak English if possible
Anglophones said error correction increased and decreased WTC,
depending on context (20% mentioned error correction).
“I’d be most willing if I had friends around me. I always felt comfortable
in a classroom giving a speech. When you are out of the classroom
I feel like people are analyzing me. I don’t mind when a teacher
does it, but not an acquaintance.”

Francophones were generally highly willing, especially if friends
spoke English
Least Willing - Anglophones

Anglophones described two situations:

a lack of self-confidence in French (over 20%)
 speaking to strangers (over 20%)
 reported a feeling of being analyzed and
critiqued, especially for accent and grammar

Recall William James’ account of the ‘cold outside’
as a paralyzing force.
Least Willing – Francophones

Least willing with Francophones (50%)

family, friends, etc.

Political dimension, English poses a threat to the vitality
of French

Highly specific situational vocabulary
“Quand je dois parler de sujets tres precis ou je ne suis pas
certains de l’exactitude des termes.” (“When I must talk
about precise topics and I am not certain of the exact
terminology.”)
At the moment of decision…

Many factors can increase or decrease the
likelihood of ‘crossing the Rubicon’






Psychological
Pedagogical
Situational
Linguistic
Sociopolitical
The influence of these will vary, wax and wane
over time
Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory

Action is based on totality of co-existing,
mutually interdependent facets.

General life vs momentary influences


Momentary influences have greater impact on action
Driving vs Restraining forces

Easier to modify action by reducing restraining
forces.
 Anglophone speakers in Ottawa were clearly holding
back
Future research



Better understand the combinations of multiple driving
and restraining forces
Focus on the moment, state-level processes
Increases the complexity of the models


Wen & Clément (2003) additional restraining forces among
Chinese (based on deference and responsibility)
Yashima (2002) found WTC predicted adjustment and
satisfaction with a stay-abroad program
Kernel #5: Future research in SLA should focus on the momentary
restraining forces that come into play when a speaker is choosing
whether or not to initiate communication.
Summary: The ‘Kernels of Wisdom’
The relationships among variables
under study in SLA may change
substantially when concepts are
defined at different levels of abstraction
(e.g., state, situation-specific or trait
levels).
#1:
The major motivation to learn another
language is to develop a
communicative relationship with
people from another cultural group.
#2:
Summary: The ‘Kernels of Wisdom’
#3: The
manner in which motivation affects
language learning changes as the time frame
under study changes.
#4: Studying
volitional choices demonstrates
that opposing processes (e.g., approach and
avoidance) converge to affect second
language communication.
Future research in SLA should focus on the
momentary restraining forces that come into
play when a speaker is choosing whether or
not to initiate communication.
#5:
Workshop activities
WTC questions from our study
 Internet chat

 letter
 software
Using your second language,
are you willing to…
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Count to 10?
Describe what you are wearing today?
Talk about your favourite hobby?
Order a complete meal?
Give directions from the Airport to the
University?
Describe or interpret a painting?
Discuss how your local / national education
system works?
Talk about the legal system in your home
province / state?
Using online chat to increase WTC
Question:
Do you think this will be effective in your
context?

See letter from Mark Friermuth
Presented at Barcelona
March, 2007
Willingness to Communicate:
crossing the psychological
Rubicon from learning to
communication.
Peter D. MacIntyre
Cape Breton University
Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada