The USSR From 1945-1956
Kevin J. Benoy
Post War USSR
• On the surface Soviet
military power looked
awesome.
• No longer would Soviet
leaders talk about
“Socialism in One
Country.”
• However, deeper analysis
revealed a precarious
position – as Stalin wellknew.
Post War Weaknesses
• While the Red Army occupied
much of Eastern and Central
Europe, it now faced a more
powerful and global adversary –
the USA.
• Furthermore the USSR was
devastated by war.
– At least 15 million were dead.
– 25 million were homeless.
– Factories and collective farms
were smashed.
• Rebuilding the Soviet Union
was a formidable task.
Yugoslavia
• The limited nature of Stalin’s
reach became evident when
Tito split with Stalin.
• Tito put Jugoslav interests first.
• He liberated his country without
Soviet help, so the Red Army
was not present.
• Tito was touchy about the
activities of Soviet agents in his
country, actively countering
their influence on the Jugoslav
Party and the country.
Jugoslavia
• Stalin publicly criticized Tito,
saying he was not following
the correct path, particularly
in collectivization of
agriculture.
• In fact this was not true prior
to the break.
• After the split he clearly took
a different line to the Soviets.
• Tito rejected the over
centralization of the Soviet
model and even turned to the
West for help in the 1950s.
Jugoslavia
• When the break became
irrevocable, Stalin
expelled Jugoslavia from
Cominform and cut off
economic aid.
• Tito would not bend.
• Stalin blustered and an
invasion looked likely –
but nothing happened.
Jugoslavia
• In his memoirs, Khruschchev
notes:
– I’m absolutely certain that if
the Soviet Union had a
common border with
Yugoslavia, Stalin would have
intervened militarily. As it
was, though, he would have
had to go through Bulgaria,
and Stalin knew we weren’t
strong enough to get away
with that. He was afraid the
American imperialists would
have actively supported the
Yugoslavs.
Jugoslavia and Albania
• The physical separation
that benefited the
Jugoslavs also gave
Albania, under Enver
Hoxha, a similar
opportunity – though they
would choose an
altogether different path –
eventually becoming a
Chinese client.
Jugoslavia
• The Stalin-Tito split was significant because it meant there
could be another model for Communism.
• As Jugoslavia liberalized it looked attractive to newly
independent nations.
• Particularly appealing was the Jugoslav practice of
denationalizing businesses and handing them over to
worker’s councils and assemblies.
• Agricultural communes proved superior to collective
farms.
• Nonetheless, there were still economic problems, not the
least of which was the unwillingness to fire colleagues and
a tendency of workers to pay themselves too much.
The Soviet Union
• In the USSR there would be
no liberalization.
• In 1955 Khrushchev told the
story of how he, Malenkov
and Molotov talked to Stalin
of reforms suggested by an
economics expert:
– We stated that we had seen and
approved the measures proposed
by Vosnesensky. Stalin listned
to us, and then he said: “Before
you go on, you should know that
Vosnesensky was shot this
morning.”
Forced Repatriation
• The deep hostility to the
Soviet regime by its
people was not apparent to
the West at the end of the
war.
• Stalin took immediate
steps to ensure it would
not be.
• He insisted on the
immediate repatriation of
Soviet citizens outside the
zone of Red Army
authority.
Forced Repatriation
• 5 million Soviet citizens
were west of the USSR at
the end of the war – 3
million in the Western
zones.
• Some were prisoners of
war, others slave labour in
Nazi Germany.
• Finally there were those
who collaborated with and
retreated with the German
army.
Forced Repatriation
• At Yalta the Big Three
agreed to repatriate all
Allied citizens at war’s
end.
• Roosevelt and Churchill
did not understand what
this would mean to Soviet
citizens. They felt it
natural that all would want
to quickly return home;
those who did not must be
traitors or were evading
justice.
Forced Repatriation
• Soviet citizens were
herded into camps for
displaced persons before
being shipped home.
• Many pretended to be
from other areas outside
the Soviet 1939 borders.
• Others claimed they were
not Soviet citizens at all.
• Still others avoided the
camps entirely.
Forced Repatriation
• Western observers noted the
fear of Soviet citizens.
• 2 million were repatriated
before it was called off.
• For those who returned, it
was as they expected.
• They were not reintegrated,
but cosigned to the Gulag
Archipelago. Common
criminals were amnestied to
make room.
• Even partisan fighters were
sent to the camps.
The Zhdanovshchina
• 65 million Soviets at
one time or another
lived under Nazi
occupation.
• Stalin considered all
suspect.
• A general tightening
of Soviet society
began.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Contact with the West
was reduced to an
absolute minimum –
even contact with
Eastern Europe.
• Legislation forbade
marriage to foreigners.
Wives had to divorce
foreign husbands or go
into Siberian exile.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Western films were not
shown – except Tarzan
(Stalin’s favourite) and
it too was attacked.
• Jazz music was banned
as it was considered
morally dangerous.
• Decadent Western
literature was attacked.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Everything Soviet was
boosted as citizens were told
their country was in the
vanguard of technology.
• Writers had to stick to
government-approved themes
and styles.
• Many artists found
themselves in trouble,
including composers
Prokofiev and Shostokovich,
as well as film director Sergei
Eisenstein.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Trofim Lysenko, a poorly
educated plant breeder,
attacked the top Soviet
genetecists, claiming that
acquired characteristics
could be inherited.
• Stalin liked the idea and
elevated Lysenko to the
highest levels of Soviet
Science.
• In the new Soviet Union
facts would not stand in
the way of ideology.
The Zhdanovshchina
• Zhdanov died in 1948,
but the purges
continued.
• Unlike in the 1930’s it
did not extend to the
CPSU itself.
The Zhdanovshchina
• In 1949 there was a
campaign against the
Jews.
• In 1949-50 it was the turn
of the physiologists.
• In the winter of 1952-53 it
was claimed that doctors
were conspiring to kill
high party officials – the
Doctors’ Plot.
• The purges only ended
with the death of Stalin.
The Soviet Economy
• Soviet citizens made more
sacrifices.
• Heavy industry and
armaments were given
priority – in preparation
for a new capitalist attack.
• The Soviet atomic
programme under Beria
(also Secret Police Head)
was given primacy.
• Once again, the consumer
was asked to tighten his
belt.
The Soviet Economy
• To make matters worse,
there was a harvest failure
in the Ukraine in 1947 –
followed by another in the
Kuban.
• Agriculture was given low
priority in the 1946 5-Year
Plan.
• Though the plan restored
industrial production to
1940 levels, it came at
tremendous cost to Soviet
citizens.
Stalin’s End
• After 1948 Stalin’s
health failed.
• His physical
deterioration was clear
and he did little to help
himself.
• He drank too much,
ate too much and
distrusted his own
doctors.
Stalin’s End
• His paranoia increased.
• He even had Mrs. Molotov sent to the Gulag and
had the room of his closest friend, Voroshilov,
bugged.
• The Central Committee and Politbureau rarely
met.
• No new Congress was held until 1952.
• Everyday affairs were conducted by his henchmen
– who were positioning themselves for when the
old man died.
Stalin’s End
• On March 4, 1953, it was
announced that Stalin
suffered a stroke on the 2nd.
• On the 5th came the
announcement that he died.
• Many suggested he might
have been “helped along” –
with Beria as a prime suspect.
• On March 9, he was laid to
rest in the Lenin Mausoleum.
Stalin’s End
• A joint communique of
the Soviet leaders called
upon citizens not to panic
and to remain loyal.
• The funeral was nowhere
near as grandiose as
expected, though there
was genuine grief at the
great man’s passing.
• People died in the crush
on Truybnaya Square in
Moscow.
The Rise of Khrushchev
• At first it appeared
Malenkov and Beria
would assume the mantle.
• Malenkov was
acknowledged as heir
apparent at the XIX Party
Congress.
• Beria controlled the
security apparatus.
• Molotov also appeared
part of a ruling
triumvirate.
Rise of Khrushchev
• Inside the Politbureau it
was more complex.
• By the end of March,
Malenkov handed the
Party Secretary position to
a relative unknown, Nikita
Khrushchev.
• The Party seemed to turn
to Collective Leadership.
• An immediate relaxation
occurred in Soviet society.
Rise of Khrushchev
• Malenkov promised consumer goods within 2-3 years.
• Beria said the Doctors’ Plot was a hoax.
• Revisions were announced to the criminal code to reduce
penalties for minor crimes.
• It was hinted that protection of rights of citizens would be
ensured.
• Thousands of communities honouring the Soviet dictator
were renamed: Stalina, Stalino, Stalinskaya, Stalinskii,
Stalinabad, Stalinogorsk and others. Stalingrad regained
its former name, Volgograd.
Changes in Eastern Europe
• Soviet changes were reflected
elsewhere in Eastern Europe.
– Soon after returning from
Stalin’s funeral, Gottwald died
and was replaced as Czech
President by Zapotocky and as
Party Chief by Novotny.
– In Hungary Imre Nagy replaced
Rakosi, and announced
reforms.
– Everywhere leaders gave up the
title of General Secretary and
came to be called First
Secretary instead.
Changes in Eastern Europe
• Changes signaled
weakness at the highest
levels, triggering strikes
and demonstrations.
• Matters got out of hand in
East Germany, where
strikes took on
revolutionary tones in
Berlin and other major
centers.
• Soviet troops put down the
troubles.
Beria Executed
• In the USSR, Beria
was executed in
December, charged
with attempting to
seize power.
• The leadership found
it convenient to
eliminate this
dangerous rival.
Hungary
• In 1955 Imre Nagy, the
reformer, again relinquished
his post to Rakosi.
• In the same year, the Soviets
strengthened their hold in E.
Europe by arranging the
Warsaw Pact Treaty,
placing all satellite armies
under Soviet command.
• Khrushchev and Bulganin
followed this with a surprise
trip to Belgrade where they
attempted to patch up the old
Soviet-Jugoslav rift.
The Spirit of Geneva
• In May, 1955, the Soviets
concluded the Austrian
Treaty. Soviet and Western
occupation forces left and
Austria became a neutral,
independent, country.
• A summit meeting of world
leaders convened in Geneva,
where all appeared friendly.
• The Soviets announced a
unilateral return of their base
at Porkkala, Finland, and
also announced recognition
of West Germany.
The Spirit of Geneva
• After Geneva, Khruschev
and Bulganin went off on
a tour of India, Burma and
Afghanistan.
• Their charm offensive
won over Nasser, in
Egypt.
• Clearly, the USSR was
making a pitch to new 3rd
World nations –
competing with American
liberalism and Chinese
communism.
The
th
20
Party Congress
• Officially, the big news of
the 20th Congress was that
Khrushchev allowed there
could be different “forms
of transition of various
countries to socialism” –
and his pointing to
Jugoslavia as an example.
• Unofficially there was
much more startling news.
The
th
20
Party Congress
• At a closed meeting on
February 24, 1956,
Khrushchev criticized
Stalin’s crimes, accusing him
of murdering loyal Party
leaders and of causing the
break with Tito.
• He was careful not to go too
far, however. Few present
had not taken an active role
in the purges.
• Stalin’s crimes were errors
and “not the deeds of a giddy
despot.”
The
th
20
Party Congress
• Some public
rehabilitations
occurred, but
countless Party
members remained
non-persons.
• Now that deStalinization was
launched, how well
could it be controlled?
The
th
20
Party Congress
• Khrushchev also formulated the policy of
peaceful coexistence.
• He argued that the peace movement in the West
made it difficult for them to wage war, that the
bomb makes war impossible, and that it was no
longer correct to assume war was inevitable.
• He did not say that an ideological accommodation
was to be made with capitalism, just that
competition should be economic, not military.
Reactions to Khrushchev’s Secret Speeech
• It took little time for word of
the speech to leak.
• On June 4, the US State
Department published the
text.
• Riots occurred in Georgia
when word of the speech
leaked there. Hundreds died.
Trouble was a combination
of opposition to the current
regime and anger at Stalin’s
demotion in the Communist
pantheon. Many felt
“though a bastard, he was
our bastard.”
Poland
• In March, 1956, Edward
Ochab, a moderate,
became First Secretary.
• Vladislav Gomulka was
released from prison and a
struggle for power ensued.
• On June 15, 15,000
workers revolted at
Poznan over economic
issues.
Poland
• The military moved in,
killing 53 and injuring
300-400 others.
• Moderates called for
Ochab to step aside.
• Soviet troops moved
toward Polish cities and
Khrushchev and several
other Politbureau
members went to Warsaw
on November 19
Poland
• A showdown occurred at
the airport.
• The Soviets had the tanks
but Gomulka had the
Polish Communist Party
and people behind him.
• Gomulka threatened to
instigate a national
revolution if Khrushchev
did not back down.
• A deal was struck.
Poland
• Gomulka became First
Secretary of the Polish
party but he became
more conservative
after assuming office.
• Polish nationalism
won out, but
liberalization was
curtailed.
Hungary
• Pressure for change in
Hungary mirrored Poland.
• Rakosi was targeted by
moderates and anti-Stalinists.
• Writers and intellectuals were
encouraged by Khrushchev’s
20th Congress speech.
• Rakosi tried to placade them
by rehabilitating a former
leader executed for Titosim,
but his personal responsibility
in the matter just infuriated his
opponents.
Hungary
• In July, Rakosi
resigned.
• On October 6 a
posthumous funeral
was held for Rajk, the
executed minister –
300,000 attended.
Hungary
• Demonstrations of students
were joined by workers and
soldiers.
• On October 23 50,000
marched on Parliament and
their numbers swelled to
hundreds of thousands.
• The Hungarian secret police
fired on students who tried to
get into the radio building to
broadcast their demands.
• Fighting broke out and the
Hungarian army disintegrated
as soldiers went over to the
rebels.
Hungary
• On the night of October 24
the Hungarian Politureau
named Imre Nagy Premier –
but also called for Soviet
military assistance.
• Janos Kadar was named
First Secretary.
• Events were now beyond
the control of politicians.
• Revolutionary workers’
councils, Soviets, were
formed, the following day –
all over the country.
Hungary
• On October 27 the
government was reorganized
to include non-communists.
• A cease-fire was arranged
the following day and Soviet
troops withdrew from
Budapest.
• Nagy now committed a fatal
error. He announced
Hungary would no longer be
a one-party state or a
member of the Warsaw Pact.
• Lack of Soviet reaction
seemed to indicate victory,
but this was not the case.
Hungary
• On November 4 Soviet
troops returned.
• Hungarian soldiers and
civilians fought back.
• Kadar was made Prime
Minister as Nagy took
refuge in the Jugoslav
embassy.
• Nagy was later tricked
into leaving, arrested by
the Soviets, and executed.
Hungary
• Thousands of Hungarians
voted with their feet and
fled to nearby Austria.
• Nagy appealed desperately
to the UN for help, but its
attention was elsewhere, on
the Suez crisis.
• By the time the matter was
taken up, Hungary was
crushed.
• The US was paralyzed, in
the middle of an election
campaign.
Hungary
• The Soviets succeeded in
enforcing control of their
satellites by the invasion.
• It had a devastating effect on
Soviet prestige abroad.
• Even French Communist
Jean-Paul Sartre tore up his
party card in protest.
• Tito also took note of the new
Soviet attitude and JugoslavSoviet relations cooled again.
Hungary
• Bad publicity followed at the 1956
Melbourne Olympic Games.
• Violence exploded in the
swimming pool when Hungarian
water polo players fought the
Soviet team.
• Hungarian players – taught Russian
at school – deliberately taunted
their Soviet opponents.
• With Hungary winning 4-0 and the
crowd firmly on their side, a Soviet
player opened a gash on a
Hungarian player’s face.
• Spectators joined the fracas and
police were called in to prevent a
riot.
Hungary
• Even within the
Kremlin there was a
price to pay.
• Khrushchev was
criticized for his
handling of deStalinization.
• Critics rose to elevated
positions
Kremlin Plot
• In June Malenkov,
Molotov and Kaganovich
engineered a Presidium
(Politbureau) vote against
Khrushchev, calling for
his dismissal.
• Only quick thinking saved
him. He announced only
the Central Committee
could fire him and he had
Zhukov fly all of them in
for a quick vote of
confidence.
Kremlin Plot
• Old Presidium members,
with the exception of
Bulganin, were dropped
from full membership.
• New people were elevated
in their place.
• From being in disgrace for
his handling of deStalinization, it now
appeared he was stronger
than any leader since
Stalin.
finis