A tiny inhabitable oasis
in a sea of inhospitable space
The Earth and its natural
environments are not unlimited
Environmental scientists examine the physical, chemical,
and biological conditions of the environment, human
impacts on the natural environment, and the effect of the
environment on all organisms.
INTERDISCIPLINARY
Biology
Ecology
Physics
Ethics
Anthropology
Chemistry
Biogeochemistry
Geography
GIS
Economics
Sociology
Computer Science
Political Science
Law
Oceanography
Engineering
Atmospheric Science
Geology
Archaeology
History
Medicine
Humans are merely a part of nature
We depend on our
environment for air,
water, food and
shelter.
We alter our
environment
intentionally and
unintentionally
Humans, like other organisms, require
renewable natural resources to survive
Renewable and Non-renewable Resources
Problem: Human Population Growth
Human Impacts on the
Natural Environment
Consider the southern Alberta landscape:
How much undisturbed mixedgrass prairie is left?
Is there such a thing as a ‘natural’ environment today?
ftp://toms.gsfc.nasa.gov/pub/eptoms/images/global/Y2004/FULLDAY_GLOB.PNG
Persistent Organic Pollutants
(eg. PCB’s)
Source: AMAP
Source: Greenpeace
Zebra mussels
Purple loosestrife
Crested Wheat Grass
Depleted Fish ‘Stocks’
Photo: CBC
Photo: Steven Holt
Environmentalism
•A social, political and ethical movement and
lifestyle concerned with protecting the
environment and using its resources wisely
•Not all environmentalists are activists
•Not all environmental scientists are
environmentalists
Lifestyle choices
Activism
An Essay on the
Principle of Population
Thomas Malthus, 1798
Population, when unchecked, increases
in a geometrical ratio.
Subsistence increases only in an
arithmetical ratio.
An important scientific essay (cited by Darwin)
Recommendations interpreted as classist.
Silent Spring
Rachel Carson, 1962
Often cited as the founder of
“environmentalism”
•Investigated the deleterious effects of DDT on
water courses, wildlife and human beings
•Human beings are merely a part of nature,
distinguished by our ability to alter it
•Called on humankind to take on this view of the
natural world
Humanity as Part of Nature:
A new way of thinking ?
• Many religions of indigenous peoples are ‘animist’,
devoting spirits to animals, plants, rocks and rivers
•Eastern religions (eg. Confucianism) discuss the
importance of conservative environmental stewardship
•Human evolutionary theory is based on the assumption
that humans are affected by their environments like any other
organism
•Humanity/Nature dichotomy (form of dualism) confined
mainly to Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Greek philosophy
The Earth – Small and vulnerable?
Apollo 8 photograph
Such photos gave a global perspective to
a youthful environmental movement
The Population Bomb
Paul R. Ehrlich, 1968 (Stanford)
Malthusian predictions
Human beings were to morbidly exceed
Earth’s carrying capacity by the 1970’s
Erroneous assumptions, inaccurate prophesies
More irresponsible ‘solutions’
Raised popular awareness of
a serious issue facing humankind
The Tragedy of the Commons
Garrett Hardin, 1968
Thesis:
“Freedom in a commons
brings ruin to all”
(ie., the best strategy for
individuals conflicts with the
common good.)
Controversial:
Argues for controls on
environmentally-detrimental
aspects of human behaviour,
including reproduction
Image source: Nikiforuk & Hawaleshka, Reader’s Digest, 06/09/04
Access to education, women’s rights and
development are now known to be key to
controlling population growth
Sustainability
The ability of an ecosystem to maintain ecological
processes and functions, biodiversity and productivity
over time (Kauffmann et al. 1994)
Sustainable Development
An oxymoron? Depends on how ‘development’ is defined
Does it mean ‘growth’ or ‘improvement?’
To meet the needs of today, without foreclosing the
achievement of tomorrow’s needs (IUCN et al. 1980)
Improving quality of life without exceeding ecological
carrying capacity
Problem: Wealthy nations already overconsume!
Principles of Sustainability
1. Ecological sustainability
Environmental scientists study how ecosystems
support us and how we can damage them
Carrying Capacity
(i)The capacity of an ecosystem to support healthy
organisms while maintaining its productivity,
adaptability and capability for renewal.
(ii) The number of people who can be supported by
the environment over time (difficult to calculate).
Ecological Footprint
Based on estimate of amount of land needed to sustain
activities / population
Shrinking globally (now <1.5 ha/person globally)
Increasing in Canada/US (now 4.27-5.10 ha/person)
Consumption must be controlled in high-income countries
for sustainability objectives to be achieved
2. Social Sustainability
Sustainable development initiatives are socially sustainable
if they do not exceed a community’s tolerance for change
3. Economic Sustainability
Resources “must be used in ways that do not permanently
damage the environment and must not impair the
replenishment capacity of renewable resources.”
(Government of Canada, 1996)
Deep Ecology
Non-human species are as valuable as humans.
The interest of wild nature must sometimes be chosen
over human well-being.
Goes further than sustainable development
Ecofeminism and Social Ecology
Domination of nature and of women are systemically
related
Hierarchy and domination must be eliminated from
human society to avoid ecological extinction
Gaia Hypothesis
•Holistic, rather than reductionist view of systems
Universe is a series of interconnected, interacting
wholes
•Earth as a single, indivisible, self-regulating
process (Gaia; Lovelock 1988)
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Precautionary Principle
In the face of threats of serious or irreversible damage
to the environment, “a lack of full scientific certainty
shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental deterioration.”
Earth Summit, 1992, Rio de Janeiro
Signed by Canada
Problems with the Conventional Application
of the Scientific Method (Kriegel et al., 2001)
Assumption that phenomena under consideration are
driven primarily by independent action of a few causal
factors
Narrow definition of uncertainty
Lack of sensitivity analysis
Type I, II amd III Error Standards
Disciplinary divisions
TYPE I ERROR
To conclude that a relationship or difference exists, when it
truly does not.
TYPE II ERROR
Failure to detect a relationship or difference that does exist.
Potential 20% error rate, using current conventions !!!
TYPE III ERROR
The scientist receives the ‘right answer to the wrong question.’
READINGS:
Chapter 1;
Kriebel et al. 2001. The Precautionary Principle in Environmental
Science. Environmental Health Perspectives. 109(9)
Grounds for conserving nature
•Utilitarian justification
A healthy environment, ecosystem or the Earth’s
biosphere provide individuals with economic benefits
or is directly necessary for survival
“I didn’t take the g.d. fish out of the water!!!”
Hon. John C. Crosbie
Fisheries Minister, 1992
1. Overfishing leads to stock decline
2. Turned to other sources of revenue
A complex environmental/socio-political issue
Strong Labrador current
can exacerbate overfishing
problem (water too cold)
High seal populations can
reduce cod stocks
Shrimp trawling/dragging
damages the ocean floor,
destroying fish breeding grounds
•Ecological justification
Even if individuals do not benefit directly,
components of the biosphere provide functions
necessary for the persistence of life
Eg. Wetland preservation
Wetland complexes filter
contaminants
Promotes health of wildlife
and humans, but protection
does not always directly
benefit individuals
•Developers stand to make millions
•There is a movement to stop them because the
moraine serves an important ecological function
(acts as water filter)
SOURCE:
TORONTO
STAR
•Aesthetic Justification
Nature is beautiful and beauty is of profound
importance and value to people
Psychological, medical and social benefits of
wild spaces
Wilderness as a sacred space
•Moral justification
Elements of the environment have a right to exist
1982 United Nations World Charter for Nature
•Environmental Ethics
Moral responsibility to sustain nature for future
generations (environmental stewardship)
Land is not an economic commodity to be used
and discarded
Examines rights of animals, plants, non-living
things and large systems important to our life support