2012
HRD WRITE UP
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
PREPARED BY: GROUP 4
XISS PM-II
2/27/2012
Group Constitution
Group Members
Roll no.
Premlata Tuti
04
Namrata Makhija
13
Vijaya Chatterjee
26
Rose Manisha Hemrom
36
Chetna Kumari
50
Namrata Sharon Rao
64
Priyanka Priya
S-5
2
Acknowledgement
As we express our gratitude, we must never forget that the highest appreciation is not to
utter words but to live by them”.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy
We would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to Prof. Sajeet Lakra, for
giving us the opportunity to prepare a write up on the topic “Knowledge Management” and
give a presentation in class. The group’s involvement and team work helped us understand
the chapter in a lucid manner. The group’s cohesiveness and team work helped us to make
this task a success. We thank all the team members and also all our colleagues for their
unconditional support.
Thank You
Group 4
3
Contents
S No.
Topics
Page No.
1.
Introduction to Knowledge Management
5
2.
Knowledge Creation
6
3.
Knowledge Conversion
6-7
4.
Knowledge Orientation and ROI
7
5.
Knowledge Management Tools
8-9
6.
Knowledge Management Process
9-11
7.
Role of the Knowledge Manager
11-12
8.
Challenges in the process of Knowledge
Management
12-14
9.
Case Analysis
15-18
10.
Bibliography
19
4
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Today knowledge has power. It controls access to opportunity and advancement.
Peter Drucker
Knowledge is the intellectual property of individuals and that of the organization.
Knowledge is the concise and appropriate collection of information in a way that makes it
useful. Patterns within a given set of information are analyzed.
Knowledge Management is the discipline of enabling individuals, teams and entire
organizations to collectively and systematically create, share and apply knowledge, to better
achieve their objectives.
Knowledge management systems are systems that are used to manage organizational
learning.
Information
Knowledge
• Information is data that is
processed.
• Information deals with the
way that data is related.
• Knowledge is information
that is modeled to be
useful
• Knowledge examines the
patterns within a set of
information.
Information is not knowledge unless and until it is applied effectively.
5
KNOWLEDGE CREATION:
Organizational knowledge creation is a process that organizationally amplifies the
knowledge created by individuals and crystallizes it as a part of the knowledge network of
the organization.
It means that knowledge is created by individuals in the organization. An organization
cannot create knowledge without individuals. Organization support creative individuals and
provides for contexts/environment for them to create knowledge. Creation of knowledge
takes place within the community of interaction which crosses organizational boundaries.
KNOWLEDGE CONVERSION
There are two types of knowledge: Tacit and Explicit
Tacit knowledge is basically the “knowledge of experience” which is created “here and
now” in a specific, practical context. Whereas Explicit knowledge is about past events or
objects “there and then.” It is basically “knowledge of rationality” and is oriented towards a
context-free theory. There are four different modes of knowledge conversion through the
interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge;
1. Socialization: From Tacit to Tacit
Socialization is a process of sharing experiences and thereby creating tacit knowledge
such as shared mental models and technical skills. An individual can acquire tacit
knowledge directly from others without using language. It can also come from with
direct interactions with suppliers and customers and by walking around inside the
organization. This principle is basically used in on-the-job training as the key to acquiring
tacit knowledge is ‘experience.’
Ex- Apprentices work with their masters and learn craftsmanship not through language
but through observation, imitation and practice.
2. Externalization: From Tacit to Explicit
It is a process of articulating tacit knowledge into explicit concepts. The tacit knowledge
in this case becomes explicit, taking the shapes of metaphors, analogies, concepts,
hypothesis or models. People within the organization start sharing what they’ve learned
in the form of diagrams or prototypes. The externalization mode of knowledge
conversion is typically seen in the process of concept creation and is triggered by
dialogue or collective reflection.
Ex-The creation of Honda city, where the team came up with the concept of “manmaximum, machine-minimum” because their target was to maximize passenger space
within the minimum area of surface.
6
3. Combination: From Explicit to Explicit
This mode of knowledge conversion involves combining different bodies of explicit
knowledge. Individuals exchange and combine knowledge through such media as
documents, meetings, telephone conversations, or computerized communication
networks. Reconfiguration of existing information through sorting, adding, combining
and categorizing of explicit knowledge can lead to new knowledge. Knowledge creation
carried out in formal education and training at schools usually takes this form.
Ex- Canon’s corporate policy, “Creation of an excellent company by transcending the
camera business,” led to the development of the Mini-Copier, which was developed
with the mid-range product concept of “easy maintenance.”
4. Internalization: From Explicit to Tacit
This is a process of embodying explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. Its closely
related to “learning by doing.” when experiences through socialization, externalization
and combination are internalized into individual’s tacit knowledge bases in the form of
shared mental models or technical know-how, they become valuable assets. For explicit
knowledge to become tacit, it helps if the knowledge is verbalized or diagrammed into
documents, manuals or oral stories. That’s because documentation helps individuals
internalize what they experienced, thus enriching their tacit knowledge.
Ex- This concept is being used by Honda for internalizing their experiences of the late
1970s and making use of that know-how and leading R&D projects.
Knowledge Organization and Return on Investment (ROI)



Learning organization and knowledge company are interlinked as collaboration
occurs when an organization as a whole gains efficiencies of operation through
pooling of services, technologies or economies of scale through the sharing of ideas
and talent across boundaries.
Shared services for example, have been found to produce 15% to 25% savings in
administrative costs while maintaining an acceptable level of quality. If we assume
that on an average a large company spends about $1600 per employee per year in
administration, then the probable cost savings of shared services would be
$1600*0.20(cost savings)’*no. of employees.
This basically shows the importance of Knowledge management and high-order
learning.
7
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT TOOLS
Requirement of Knowledge Management Tools
The tools for KM are focused on assimilation, comprehension, and learning of the
information by individuals who will then transform data and information into knowledge.
Knowledge is strictly linked and connected to the individual (or group) who creates it, which
may cast doubts on the availability of information systems tools to effectively support KM.
Thus the visible part of knowledge, what the literature calls explicit as opposed to the tacit
dimension of knowledge, is only information regardless of the amount of the other
individual knowledge embedded into it. Therefore, there is requirement of KM tools, which
can collect, catalogue, organize, and share knowledge or transfer information (the explicit
knowledge) embedded in various forms and types of documents and media.
Tools available for Knowledge Management
A number of tools are available to support the functionalities and processes of KM, which
are listed below:
1) Tools to access knowledge:
These tools provide access to explicit knowledge that can be shared and transferred
through the enterprise information systems. For example, Convera is a tool used for
retrieval ware. It works on powerful indexing systems to classify expertise based on
both content and collaboration dynamics and networks within the enterprise.
2) Tools for semantic mapping:
These tools are meant to quickly support presentation of information, analysis, and
decision making. Ontology tools are also part of this category as they enable users to
organize information and knowledge by groups and schemata that represent the
organizational knowledge base. For example, Anacubis is a ground-breaking visual
research and analysis software for corporate researchers, analysts, and intelligence
professionals. It supports the visual discovery and analysis of intelligence in both
online and enterprise information. Information is represented in the Anacubis
Desktop by icons and links. Users can also import, create, analyze, and distribute
visual representations of their research and analysis.
3) Tools for knowledge extraction:
These tools support structured queries and replies. They help mining text by
interpreting relationships among different elements and documents. For example,
ClearForest Text Analysis Suite is an advanced text driven business intelligence
solutions which apply intelligent mark-up to key entities such as person,
8
organization, location, as well as detailed facts or events embedded within free-form
text such as news articles, web surveys, and HTML documents.
4) Tools for expertise localization:
These tools enable quick location of the knowledge holders in the enterprise and
facilitate collaboration and knowledge exchange. For example, Active Net maintains
a continuous, real-time view of organizational activities. Active Net continuously
discovers each person’s work activity and business relationships by processing
communications from such sources as documents, discussion databases, e-mail,
instant messaging and digital workspaces.
5) Tools for collaboration work:
These tools enable teams to globally share dedicated spaces for managing the
project lifecycle; editing and publishing materials; conducting live discussions and
interactions; and maintaining a repository of materials associated with every step of
the process. For example, QuickPlace is a Lotus’s web-based shared workspace
software for real-time collaboration among geographically dispersed participants.
Using QuickPlace, co-workers, suppliers, partners, and customers can communicate
online immediately within a structured workspace created for that purpose. An
online workspace can make it possible for people to work together more easily and
less expensively.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS
The definition of knowledge management emphasizes the processes of knowledge in
organizations, such as storing, collecting, structuring, sharing, controlling, creating,
disseminating, codifying, using and exploiting.
 “Knowledge Management Life Cycle” consists of five sequential steps, as knowledge
creating, sharing, structuring, using and auditing.
5
1
KNOWLEDGE
AUDITING
KNOWLEDGE
CREATION
4
2
KNOWLEDGE
USING
KNOWLEDGE
SHARING
3
KNOWLEDGE
STRUCTURING
9
1) Knowledge Creation
 Focus is on individuals, groups and departments.
 The basic goal of knowledge management is to convert from tacit to explicit form of
knowledge in organization through following participant’s human and social
information processing.
2) Knowledge sharing
The ways and tools for effective knowledge sharing are as follows:
• Formal social communication network,
• Informal social communication network,
• Teamwork,
• Communities of practices,
• Organizational learning,
• Rumors and,
•Formal structured technological communication networks
communications, teleconferences, videoconferences, etc.).
(e-mail,
mobile
3) Knowledge Structuring
 It is based on sorting, organizing, codifying, analyzing, and reporting information
that provides information retrieval what organization needs in the future.
 It includes structuring databases, organizing data for analyzing, taxonomy of data,
clustering/managing databases.
4) Knowledge Using
There are 3 reasons of knowledge use in an organization

Knowledge can be used for determining organization’s work processes and making
strategies for sustainable competitive advantage.

Knowledge can be used for designing and marketing product.

Knowledge plays a critical role of organization’s services quality.
10
5) Knowledge Auditing
What amount of information and knowledge are created, shared, stored, and used in
organization in a certain time helps us to determine information capacity in
organizations.
ROLE OF THE KNOWLEDGE MANAGER
Knowledge Management system must be built to support business processes that affect the
bottom line of the organization. One of the important tasks of a chief knowledge officer is to
convince employees and the top management about the value of Knowledge Management.
The management should be convinced about the financial implication that Knowledge
Management can have on an organization, whereas employees will have to be convinced
that Knowledge Management will not be an added burden to them. Management and
employees have to be brought together for the successful implementation of the knowledge
Management program.
In order to implement a Knowledge Management program successfully, a chief knowledge
officer has to build successful organizational and technical capabilities. On the
organizational front, the task of the Chief Knowledge Officer is:
Identify Knowledge gaps and assesses how they can be bridged.
•
Build an organization culture for Knowledge sharing that involves all employees in
the process of Knowledge-sharing.
•
Create appropriate measurement criteria to evaluate the Knowledge Management
program in the organization. These measurement standards also help in rewarding
employees who share the best practices.
•
Educate employees about the Knowledge Management system.
•
Familiarize employees with the best practices in Knowledge Management and how
they can increase their productivity.
•
Improve the level of existing knowledge by identifying areas of performance and
areas that need improvement.
The technological initiatives that a chief knowledge officer should take up include:
•
Build enterprise wide channel for communication.
•
Develop an effective intranet through which employees can share knowledge.
•
Support employees with technical help and introduce them to technologies like
telecommuting.
11
•
Introduce cross functional tools that can help teams from different functional areas
to collaborate.
•
Encourage teamwork and a collaborative work environment that can help in
collaborative problem-solving.
Role of HR
 Effective Leadership – Accessibility, Non-Judgmental Approach
 Goal Alignment – between leaders & team members
 Constructive Performance Management
 Valuing skills and Reward and Recognizing Strategies
 Enabling Workplace Design – physical proximity ensures better communication
 Team-based morale
 Socializing- sense of belongingness
 Timely Induction Programs – provides “foundation knowledge” for new members,
minimizes scope for misunderstandings
 Positive communication climate
CHALLENGE FOR AN ORGANIZATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE ERA
An organization relies on the knowledge held by individuals. Expert knowledge sources are a
key strategic force which should be recognized by others and accessible to them.
Increasingly, organizations are recognizing the importance of capitalizing and cultivating
those who can guide and enhance the strategic priorities of the organization. Strategic
knowledge- expertise and understanding that support the strategic direction of the
organization –is increasingly values as an organizational asset.
The challenge for an organization is to have a clear understanding of desirable strategic
knowledge and the sources of such knowledge in its community. An organization, aiming to
develop a knowledge base, first needs to identify the sources of knowledge available, and
then to capture and manage those appropriately.
For many organizations, the individual’s knowledge assets are little known outside a small
circle of associates. Thus, a particular challenge for many organizations is the development
12
of mechanism to both identify and capture knowledge which might be potentially valuable
for others to access.
An important priority for many organizations is to determine which elements of knowledge
are of high strategic value, and which are less crucial for the ongoing health of the
organization. This requires careful consideration and deliberation, using a number of
perspectives, both current and future, to identify those areas of knowledge that will benefit
the community if shared.
Thus knowledge management is not only about sharing what one knows but it entails
identifying strategic knowledge which should be accessible for the growth of the
organization. Hence, Knowledge management is a complex process and relies on the
alignment of the five Ps:
1)

Planning

People

Process

Product

Performance
Planning
Strategic knowledge management requires comprehensive planning. It should clarify
the knowledge goals and establish effective values and processes to support those
directions. Long term and short term goals need to be clearly defined. Planning for
technological infrastructure should also reflect knowledge management goal.
Planning process takes time and perseverance, requiring careful consideration of the
whole knowledge context. They also need ongoing monitoring and measurement to
ensure the planned strategies were successfully implemented. Equally important is
the recognition that strategic knowledge management requires progressive review
and re-planning to take into account the changing environment.
2)
People
Also central to the strategic knowledge management is the recognition that strategic
knowledge relies on people. People have the knowledge. They manage the systems
and processes. Their commitment to the strategic knowledge management process
is important to its overall success. They need to be convinced that strategic
knowledge management is a valuable initiative. A sharing culture which infuses
knowledge diffusion can be developed through effective knowledge hubs, networks,
CoPs and other social community strategies. Participants need to be convinced that
there are social, economic and logistic benefits from their knowledge partnerships.
13
This implies that the knowledge message will be strongly supported by the human
resource process and philosophies, and by the leadership provided at all the levels of
the organization. The perceived values and priorities of the organization will act as
major influences on the way people react to strategic knowledge management.
3)
Processes
Strategic knowledge management principles need to be put into practice through
effective workplace practices. The alignment of strategies, principles, processes and
practices needs to be carefully managed to ensure that the strategic knowledge
management principles do not fracture when implemented. It needs to be
recognized that messages about what is important may be perceived differently
across the nation. Employees will consider the rhetoric and the reality of
consequences when determining how they should work and interact. If there is a
little tangible commitment to the knowledge principles, they will ignore the public
message in favour of the local reality. Thus, the actual process needs to be
monitored regularly to ensure it reflects knowledge priorities. If not, it is important
to recognise that the overall knowledge philosophy is contradicted by the social
context in which the knowledge operates. The management infrastructure is
particularly important for ensuring aligned practices.
4)
Products
Each organization builds its own knowledge output or products. These may be
provided to clients, or exist as internally shared knowledge objects. A focus on core
knowledge helps to identify the range of knowledge products which should be
cultivated, encouraging their definition, capture, management and distribution.
Explicit knowledge should be captured and distributed in an efficient and timely
manner, so that it is readily available to the would-be users. The identification and
encouragement of knowledge objects sharing should be carefully planned, as the
goal is to ensure that all valuable knowledge is preserved and accessed to meet the
long term and short term requirements.
5)
Performance
Knowledge management needs to be regularly reviewed to ensure that the financial
and social investment is positively influencing the intellectual and social capital of
the organization. Therefore Knowledge management requires regular evaluations
to consider how well it is integrated into the business context.
14
CASE ANALYSIS
Greater than the sum of its parts: Knowledge Management in British Petroleum
"By the end of 1997, we want to deliver a demonstrable increase in our ability to manage
knowledge. We want to enhance our knowledge assets, assess our ability to manage
these assets, and to look at what the critical areas of knowledge are for us." Chris
Collison, BP Knowledge Management looks at making the vision a reality.
“The biggest single source of sustainable competitive advantage in the future will be our
ability to create and mobilize knowledge in the interest of new products and services."
These are the words of Kent Greenes, who leads BP's Knowledge Management effort with
a dedicated team of ten staff. His multi-disciplinary team, drawn from across the range of
BP's business activities, is supporting a range of knowledge management initiatives
underway in business units, as well as developing new tools and processes to support the
approach.
The establishment of such a team underwrites a commitment to knowledge management
made by BP's CEO, John Browne, who sees it as key to helping the multinational "separate
itself from the pack.”
BP's flat organizational structure revolves around a "federation" of 87 business units. Each
has a high degree of autonomy, yet they all share a growing sense of interdependence
and awareness that in order to meet their aggressive performance targets they will need
to learn both from and with each-other. In short, the focus is on working smarter - to
quote
the
vision
from
the
Knowledge
Management
team:
"BP knows what it knows, learns what it needs to learn, and uses its knowledge more
productively than any other company “Making the vision a Reality.”
"By the end of 1997, we want to deliver a demonstrable increase in our ability to manage
knowledge. We want to enhance our knowledge assets, assess our ability to manage
these assets, and to look at what the critical areas of knowledge are for us." 1
The team has three broad areas of focus for their approach to helping BP become that
smarter company.
Towards a smarter company - the three broad areas of knowledge focus at BP
1. Getting the Organization Ready
The Knowledge Management team plan to talk with every BP business unit world-wide
during 1997 to carry out what they describe as "engagement" - to create awareness and
develop expectations across the company. An engagement typically consists of a powerful
15
presentation and discussion with key staff, focusing on the importance of knowledge as a
strategic asset and highlighting where knowledge management is already being
successfully applied in the organization. The intent is that 80% of those engaged do
something more than they are already doing to manage their knowledge.
After each engagement, the Knowledge Management team uses the feedback and ideas
generated to evolve the way forward for BP's Knowledge Management strategy and
implementation.
To support this awareness activity, BP is building up a "showcase" of examples of
knowledge management in action, drawing on best practice case histories.
To further embed this thinking into the organization, the team is working with BP's
Organizational Development staff to build aspects of knowledge management into the
formal graduate induction and leadership development programs, so that delegates
experience accessing BP's knowledge infrastructure, and broaden their networks to access
key
expertise
from
diverse
parts
of
the
company.
More ambitiously, Greenes is passionate about developing the appropriate leadership and
knowledge management competencies in all staff, and further legitimizing sharing and
learning processes in the company.
Larry Prusak (IBM Consulting), who has regularly helped stimulate BP's thinking on
knowledge management, summarized well the challenge that BP, or any other company,
faces in a recent article:
"I call my field 'knowledge management' but you can't manage knowledge. Nobody can.
What you do - what a company does - is manage the environment that optimizes
knowledge." 2
Virtual Team working in British Petroleum
One thousand staff in BP, together with over 30 of its key partners and suppliers, shares
extensive desktop collaboration, video-conferencing and information sharing tools, as part
of a major program to support the creation of virtual teams. The technology element is
augmented by the provision of coaching in new ways of working, aiming for sustainable
changes in work patterns and behaviors.
In addition to stimulating totally new ways of working, this capability enables a degree of
tacit knowledge transfer between key staff throughout BP's federation of business units,
and has already contributed tens of millions of dollars of value to the company.
16
2. Managing our Knowledge Assets
Managing knowledge assets involves making knowledge visible and accessible where it
already exists - whether in the form of "packaged knowledge" on the Intranet, or as
knowledge resident in people, accessible via corporate yellow pages. It also involves
understanding what BP's critical knowledge assets are, both for the present and the future.
Once this is known, a programmatic approach to "fill in the gaps" and seek new knowledge
can be put into action.
BP's current track record in the oil industry is an indication of its ability to mobilize
knowledge in real time - to bring key expertise to bear on a particular business problem or
opportunity. Now the focus is on how this mobility can be supplemented with a systematic
approach to the capture and transfer of knowledge.
As a result of exposure to research by Prof. John Henderson (Boston University) on the US
Army's Center for Army Lessons Learned3, BP is learning to apply a learning process known
as an After Action Review. This team-based process is applicable to any event where there is
a desire to capture and apply lessons learned, whether to refinery maintenance, drilling
optimization or even to senior management meetings. To gain first-hand exposure to the
technique, BP has even flown in retired ex-US Army Col. Ed Guthrie to coach the staff in
several of its operations.
As the capture of knowledge becomes a mainstream activity in BP, new roles are emerging
in business units - the role of a "knowledge guardian", who proactively seeks out and
codifies lessons and better practices from their part of the company. Often this "packaged
knowledge" takes the form of a multimedia-rich resource on BP's rapidly growing intranet,
where it can be easily showcased and linked to related people and information.
In managing its own knowledge assets, the company regularly looks to others as a source of
best practice and creative ideas. BP, along with other organizations such as Ford,
GlaxoWellcome, GM, Xerox, Kraft, the US Army and Coca Cola is currently a member of two
cross-industry working groups, facilitated by the APQC and Boston University respectively.
"We certainly don't have all the answers", says Greenes "we have a tremendous amount to
learn from others in this field, and find great value in sharing both our strengths and
weaknesses with fellow-travelers”.
After Action Reviews (AARs)
Developed by the U.S. Army to enable its transformation from a late "Industrial Age" Army
to an "Information Age" Army for the 21st Century, the After Action Review is a simple
mechanism for individuals and teams to learn and capture knowledge immediately from
successes and failures with just four questions:
1. What was supposed to happen?
2. What actually happened?
3. Why were their differences?
4. What can we learn?
17
The AAR process has been adopted by companies such as Motorola and General Electric and now British Petroleum.
3. Leveraging our Expertise
Striving to make better use of the expertise already resident in the organization has lead BP
into some pioneering work with new tools and technologies. The Virtual Teamwork Program
is a good example of a holistic approach to the support of tacit knowledge transfer. Initiated
in 1995 as a visionary experiment, but now accepted as "business as usual", the program
brought together desktop video-conferencing and collaboration technologies with behavior
change "coaching". Almost 1,000 staff in BP, over 30 of its key partners and suppliers now
regularly
use
this
capability
to
transfer
knowledge
face-to-face.
The Peer Assist process is a less ad hoc approach to knowledge transfer and creative
problem solving. Business units are encouraged to request assistance from their peers to
address key problems or opportunities. The Peer Assist process also legitimizes the time and
cost required to bring together a diverse group of professionals from around the world, who
will spend several days working together as a transient team to identify new approaches,
thereby stimulating existing and new networks across the company. It is accepted practice
that Peer Assists are uncharged activities and, moreover, they illustrate the sort of federal
behavior
that
BP
is
pursuing
to
complement
its
organization.
To enable people to leverage the expertise across the group, several different learning
projects and pilots are underway, adopting a variety of approaches: exploiting multimedia
and video technology; creating electronic yellow pages that can be searched in a variety of
ways; and encouraging people to list their interests, expertise and experiences that they are
willing to share with anyone wishing to contact them, via face-to-face or even virtual
meetings.
In summary, BP's overall approach can be characterized by these three threads - Getting the
organization ready, Managing its knowledge assets and Leveraging its expertise - together
with a holistic consideration of people, process and technology-related issues.
Finally, Kent Greenes is in no doubt as to the lasting relevance of knowledge management
within BP:
"Knowledge Management is not a fad for BP - it is high on the operational and strategic
agenda of the company. The question is not 'is Knowledge Management critical to our
success?', but rather, 'how do we make it happen in a way that it becomes part of our dayto-day business?”
18
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Strategic Human Resource Management and Development, Richard Regis, Page 278286, First edition, Excel Books
2) <http://www.ikmagazine.com/xq/asp/sid.0/articleid.750C40CD-3510-47CA-98275403ADCE1D93/eTitle.Greater_than_the_sum_of_its_parts_Knowledge_Manageme
nt_in_British_Petroleum/qx/display.htm> accessed on 15th February,2012 at
7.30PM. Source file
3) Chris Collison works in the Knowledge Management group at BP. He can be
contacted at: colliscj@bp.com
1
Kent Greenes, 'BP Review', Internal Research and Engineering Journal, March 1997.
Larry Prusak, 'Knowledge Management calls for a new way of thinking', July
1997.[http://www.ibm.com/services/articles/knowman2.html].
3 Transforming the US Army: The Need for Knowledge Management and Organizational
Learning (A) and 'Transforming the US Army - the Center for Army Lessons Learned' by
Stephanie Watts and John C. Henderson, Teaching Case series NSF-TQM-1 and NSF-TQM-2,
1997.
2
19