Alliyah Evangelista
The Chemical Level of Organization
Organization of atoms, molecules, ions and more. Chapter 2 of A&P
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Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass
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Mass
The amount of matter a substance contains; weight is the force of gravity acting on mass
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What are the three forms of matter?
solid, liquid, gas
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What are the four Major Elements?
Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Nitrogen (N)
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Function of (O)?
Used to generate ATP (Adenosine Triphospate)
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Function of (C)?
Forms chains and rings of all organic molecules; proteins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
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Function of (H)?
Ionized form (H+) makes fluids more acidic
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Function of (N)?
Component of all proteins and nucleic acids
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___ are positively charged atoms, and are located in the nucleus
Protons
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___ are atoms that have no charge, in the nucleus.
Neutrons
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___ are negatively charged atoms, that forms a cloud outside the nucleus.
Electrons
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Only ___ electrons can be in the first shell.
2
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How many electrons can be in the second shell?
8
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How many electrons can be in the third shell?
18
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The ___ is the number of protons in an atom.
Atomic number
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The atomic number is also the ___.
number of electrons
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What is the mass number?
The number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
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What are isotopes?
Different atoms of the same element with the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons, thus different mass number.
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Why are radioactive isotopes unstable?
Their nuclei decay to make a simpler form and as they decay they emit radiation.
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___ of an element is the average mass of all its various isotopes of the various types.
The atomic mass/weight
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What is an ion?
An atom that has a positive or negative charge after giving or gaining an electron.
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What is a free radical?
An atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost valence shell.
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How do free radicals become stable?
By giving or taking another electron.
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What is a compound?
Molecules that contain two or more different kinds of elements.
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Chemical bonds are when ___.
the atoms of a molecule are held together by forces of attraction.
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What determines the likelihood of an atom forming a chemical bond with another atom?
The number of electrons in its valence shell.
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Describe the Octet Rule
Atoms that have incomplete outer shells tend to combine with each other in chemical reactions to make a chemically stable arrangement of eight valence electrons.
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What are ionic bonds?
When atoms lose or gain one or more electrons and holds ions of opposite charge (opposites attract).
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___ and negatively charged ions are attracted to one another.
Positively
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___ are positively charged ions that gave away one or more electrons (donors).
Cations
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Who are the receivers in a bond?
Anions; negatively charged ions that receive one or more electrons from another atom.
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What kind of bond is formed when the electrons are being shared between two or more atoms?
Covalent bond
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What is a triple covalent bond?
When three pairs of electrons are being shared.
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What is a nonpolar covalent bond?
The equal sharing of electrons, one doesn't attract more strongly than the other and the number shared is the same.
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Polar covalent bonds are ___.
when atoms are sharing electrons unequally, one atom attracts more strongly than the other.
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Hydrogen bonds are when ___.
two other atoms associate with a (H) atom.
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What kind of bond gives water considerable surface tension?
Hydrogen bond
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Why can't hydrogen bonds bind atoms together?
They only serve as links between molecules.
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What kind of bond is this?
Polar covalent bond.
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What kind of bond is this?
Nonpolar covalent bond
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When do chemical reactions occur?
When new bonds are formed and old bonds break.
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Reactants are the
starting substances of a chemical reaction.
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Products are the
ending substances.
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___ is when the total mass of the reactants and the products stay the same before and after a reaction. They only have different chemical properties because they've been rearranged.
Law of conservation of mass
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___ is energy stored in matter due to its position.
Potential energy
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A person ready to jump down some steps is an example of?
Potential energy
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What is kinetic energy?
Energy in motion
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A person jumping down some steps is an example of?
Kinetic energy
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What is chemical energy?
It is a form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of molecules and compounds.
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The law of conservation of energy is when?
The amount of energy at the beginning and end of a chemical reaction is the same.
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Energy can't be...?
created or destroyed, but it can be altered to be something else.
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Describe exergonic reactions
When a product has more energy before it was broken.
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When do exergonic reaction occur?
Catabolism
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Describe endergonic reactions
When a product absorbs more energy than they release.
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Activation energy is the ___.
collision energy needed to break chemical bonds.
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What are some factors that can influence the chance of a collision?
Temperature and concentration
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What are catalysts?
Chemical compounds that speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for one to occur.
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Does a catalyst alter the potential energy of the reactants and products?
No, it only lowers the amount of energy needed for a reaction.
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What is a synthesis reaction?
Reactions that combine to form new and larger molecules; they are anabolic.
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A catabolic/decomposition reaction occurs when ___.
a molecule is broken down into smaller parts.
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What is an exchange reaction?
It is when an atom(s) is replaced by another atom.
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What is a reversible reaction?
When products can revert back to the reactants.
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What do inorganic compounds lack?
Carbon
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Organic compounds always have ___.
Carbon and hydrogen, and usually have oxygen.
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What type of bond do organic compounds always have?
Covalent
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Water is an ___.
inorganic compound
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Substances with polarity ___.
dissolve in water because they are hydrophilic
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Nonpolar substances are ___.
hydrophobic
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What does hydrolysis do?
It breaks larger molecules into simpler ones by adding a water molecule.
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What type of reaction is hydrolysis?
Decomposition
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What does dehydration synthesis do?
It makes new bonds by removing a molecule of water.
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Where is water found in the body?
Wherever friction needs to be reduced or eliminated (joints, bones).
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A ___ is a combo of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not chemically bound.
mixture
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A solution is ___.
a solute being dissolved in the solvent
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What is a colloid?
A mixture that has large enough particles in it to scatter light. Usually transparent.
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What is an example of a colloid?
Milk
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Suspensions are ___.
heterogeneous mixtures that will have one material suspended, but will eventually settle at the bottom.
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Oxidation-Reduction is the ___.
transfer of electrons between atoms and molecules.
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Acids
Ionize into one or more (H+) ions and one or more anions. (H+ and Cl-)
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Bases
Dissociates into one more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations. (K+ and OH-)
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Salts
Dissociates into cations or anions, neither (H+) or (OH-). Formed when acids and bases react with each other. (K+ and Cl-)
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What does the pH scale measure?
The acidity and alkalinity of a solution.
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>7 on the pH scale indicate what?
The acidity of a solution
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<7 on the pH scale indicate what?
The alkalinity of a solution
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What does a buffer system do?
To convert strong acids into weaker acids or bases.
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The carbonic and acid-bicarbonate is ___.
an important buffer system in our body.
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___ is a chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule.
Carbon skeleton
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What are monomers?
Identical or similar small building-block molecules (macromolecules).
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When many monomers are covalently bonded to each other, what does it form?
Polymer
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What is an isomer?
They are molecules that have the same molecular formula but have different structures.
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Carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups (based on their sizes):
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
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How are disaccharides formed?
Formed from two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis.
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Sucrose = glucose + fructose, is an example of what?
Hydrolysis of a disaccharide
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How do lipids become soluble?
By combining with proteins and forming lipoproteins.
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What are the functions of proteins? (Name at least one)
They give structure to the body, regulate processes, provide protection, help muscle contractions, transport substances and serve as enzymes.
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What creates proteins?
Amino acids
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Enzymes are ___.
catalysts of a living cell
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___ forms the genetic code inside each cell and regulates most of the activity that takes place in out cells.
DNA
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___ relays info from the genes in the cell's nucleus to guide each cell's assembly from amino acids into proteins.
RNA
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Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) and Uracil (U) are called ___.
Nitrogenous bases
