Physical geography

A landlocked state or country is a sovereign state entirely enclosed by land, or whose only coastlines lie on closed seas.

In geology, permafrost is ground, including rock or (cryotic) soil, at or below the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F) for two or more years.

Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) is the vertical and horizontal dimension of the land surface.

Terrain or relief is an essential aspect of physical geography, and as such its portrayal presents a central problem in cartography, and more recently GIS and geovisualization.

The polar night occurs when the night lasts for more than 24 hours.

Urban climate refers to climatic conditions in an urban area that differ from neighboring rural areas, and are attributable to urban development.

The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude at 23.

The Quaternary Period (pronunciation: /kwəˈtɜːrnəri/) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through (geological) time.

Palaeogeography (or paleogeography) is the study of historical geography, generally physical landscapes.

The Great Rift Valley is a name given to the continuous geographic trench, approximately 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi) in length, that runs from Lebanon's Beqaa Valley in Asia to Mozambique in South Eastern Africa.

A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαίρα [sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties.

The Polish Limnological Society (Polish: Polskie Towarzystwo Limnologiczne (PTLim)) is a Polish scientific society that disseminates information among limnologists, those who study all aspects of lakes, including their physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and management.

WMS (Watershed Modeling System) is a complete program for developing watershed computer simulations.

Periglaciation (adjective: "periglacial," also referring to places at the edges of glacial areas) describes geomorphic processes that result from seasonal thawing of snow in areas of permafrost, the runoff from which refreezes in ice wedges and other structures.

Hydrologic Research Center (HRC), founded in 1993, is a public-benefit non-profit research, technology transfer, and science cooperation and education organization, dedicated to the development of effective and sustainable solutions to global water issues.

Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, pedon, "soil"; and λόγος, logos, "study") is the study of soils in their natural environment.

The British Society for Geomorphology (BSG), incorporating the British Geomorphological Research Group (BGRG), is the professional organisation for British geomorphologists and provides a community and services for those involved in teaching or research in geomorphology, both in the UK and overseas.

Europeans in the 16th century divided the world into four continents: Africa, America, Asia and Europe.

Initiated in 1947, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), formerly known as the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, is a scientific society with the goal of Advancing the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography.

This is a list of various northernmost things on earth.

The most southerly geographical features of various types are listed here.

(Not to be confused with Attitude.) Altitude or height (sometimes known as depth) is defined based on the context in which it is used (aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, and many more).

A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation, usually of terrain, materialized as a physical artifact.