Physical geography

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through (geological) time.

A landlocked state or country is a sovereign state entirely enclosed by land, or whose only coastlines lie on closed seas.

A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαίρα [sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties.

Palaeogeography (or paleogeography) is the study of historical geography, generally physical landscapes.

In geology, permafrost is ground, including rock or (cryotic) soil, at or below the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F) for two or more years.

The polar night occurs when the night lasts for more than 24 hours.

The Quaternary Period (pronunciation: /kwəˈtɜːrnəri/) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).

The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude at 23.

Urban climate refers to climatic conditions in an urban area that differ from neighboring rural areas, and are attributable to urban development.

Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) is the vertical and horizontal dimension of the land surface.

Terrain or relief is an essential aspect of physical geography, and as such its portrayal presents a central problem in cartography, and more recently GIS and geovisualization.

Europeans in the 16th century divided the world into four continents: Africa, America, Asia and Europe.

Several cosmological and mythological systems portray four corners of the world or four quarters of the world corresponding approximately to the four points of the compass.

Periglaciation (adjective: "periglacial," also referring to places at the edges of glacial areas) describes geomorphic processes that result from seasonal thawing of snow in areas of permafrost, the runoff from which refreezes in ice wedges and other structures.

Initiated in 1947, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), formerly known as the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, is a scientific society with the goal of Advancing the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography.

(Not to be confused with Attitude.) Altitude or height (sometimes known as depth) is defined based on the context in which it is used (aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, and many more).

Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, pedon, "soil"; and λόγος, logos, "study") is the study of soils in their natural environment.

This is a list of various northernmost things on earth.

A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation, usually of terrain, materialized as a physical artifact.

The most southerly geographical features of various types are listed here.