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3 Parts of Natural SelectionHeredity, Variations, Differential Reproduction/Selection
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Evolutionary TheoryUniversal signals, Innate emotions
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Who was Leo Tolstoy?Russian authorVeteran of the Crimean war"War and Peace"-> Zeitgeist theory
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Pattern in history?Different point of views:Clycial HypothesisLinear-Progressive HypothesisChaos Hypothesis
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Karl PopperHe rejected the Induction in favour of empirical falsification(it just can be falsified)
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Thomas Kuhn-Science Underdog periodic paradigm Shifts-Scientific truth cannot be established by objective criteria but is defined by a consensus of a scientific community-Competing (antreten, konkurrieren) paradidms are incommensurable(nicht vergleichbar)
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Paul FeyerabendAgainst Method:-anarchistic(herrschaftslos) view of science -there are no universal methodes!-Pluralism is good for new knowledge-Science has to change the methods-
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What is Histography of Science?The methods of the History of Science
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How do we know things from the scientific history? What should we consider?1.Great man approach (individuals)2.-Personae(values and methods of significant individuals because they represent prototypes of research in the field)-Factories(particular location or institution)-Schools(share common values or methods)
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Three forms of PsychologyAcademic: scientific ProfessionalPopular Psychology
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1. “It is clear, then, that the idea of a fixed method, or of a fixed theory or rationality, rests on too naive a view of man and his social surroundings. To those who look at the rich material provided by history, and who are not intent on impoverishing it in order to please their lower instincts, their craving for intellectual security in the form of clarity, precision, "objectivity", "truth", it will become clear that there is only one principle that can be defended under all circumstances and in all stages of human development. It is the principle: anything goes.”Feyerabend
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2. “Without commitment to a paradigm there can be no science... the study of paradigms is what prepares a student for membership in a particular scientific community. Men whose research is based on shared paradigms are committed to the same rules and standards for scientific practice. That commitment and the apparent consensus it produces are prerequisites for normal science, i.e., for the genesis and continuation of a particular research tradition. ...scientific revolutions are inaugurated by a growing sense that an existing paradigm has ceased to function adequately in the exploration of an aspect of nature.”Kuhn
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“The game of science is, in principle, without end. He who decides one day that scientific statements do not call for any further test, and that they can be regarded as finally verified, retires from the game.”Popper
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the study of individual biographies is an appropriate and common method in the history of science ?True
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b. the concept of “scientific personae” in the history of science refers to how specific individuals may be studied to understand the prototypical values and practices of a scientific field ?Ture
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c. schools of psychology are defined as groups of researchers that work on the same topic, typically, at the same location or institution?Wrong
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d. quantitative history offered the first method to cluster researchers into schools or scientific factories ?Wrong
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When started Psychology?What does the name mean?Classical AntiquityGreek: breath, life, soul
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What was Cupid and Psyche?-story originally from Metamorphoses (also called the golden Ass)-2nd century AD by Maudaurensis-overcoming of obstacles(Hindernissen) to the love between Psyche und Cupid/Amor-> ultimate union in a marriage
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What was the School of Athens?-painting with Plato and Aristotle-refers to the philosophical movement in the greek Antiquity
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Phaedros-Plato-Chariot Allegory
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What says the Chariot Allegory in Phaedros from Plato?-shows Platos view on the soul-one is noble(rational, moral) and one is not(irrational, passions, appetites)-Charioteer is the intellect-Soul is not divisible
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Who was Plato?-400 v.Chr.-Socrates disciple(Schüler)-founded the Academy of Philosophy in Athens-Idealism -Theors of forms-reality as a mental construct-senses do not give as a true picture of reality-Dualist View(Seperation)-Goal was Eudaimonia/fulfilment(Erfüllung)
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What is the theory of forms?-Plato- illusions through our senses?-cave metaphor
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The Republic by Plato Quote"The same thing clearly cannot act or be acted upon in the same part or in relation to the same thing at the same time, in contrary ways; and therefore whenever this contradiction(Wiederspruch) occurs in things apparently the same, we know that they are really not the same, but different."
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The Republic by Plato Soul Componets-Soul has different components but is not divisible!-Soul Component, Domain, Seat in the Body, Position of Society1.Desire,Appetitive-Emotion-Abdomen-Worker2.Spirit-Motivation-Breast-Warrior3.Reason/Logic-Cognition-Head-Ruler
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Which three books are from PlatoRepublicMenoPhaedros
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What was Meno by Plato about?-innate knowledge-Where does virtue come from?-example with slave who understands basic geometric principles-> slave has recovered knowledge-anamnesis-> certain knowledge in innate and "recollected" by the soul through proper inquiry.
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Who was Aristotle?-Platos disciple-founded a philosophy school "Lyceum"-Monist: body and shoul are interdependent, body as a tool of the soul, rely(verlassen) on each other-biology,logic,causality, psychology(memory,dreams,health)-emphasis on practical goals of philosophy(rhetoric, ethics, the good life)
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What was de Anima about and from who?-Aristotle-his view on the soul-soul is divisible, tripartite in which facultaties or powers are distinguished-Matter and form: De Anima (Soul) as the form of the body which is the matter of the soul
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Tripartite View of De Anima of the soulFaculty-Function1.Vegetative/Nutritional-Nutrition/Growth2.Animal/Appetitive- Desire/Perception/Movement3.Intellectual/Calculative-Reason
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From who is Nichomeachean Ethics and what is about?-Aristotle-Aristotles view on happiness
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Aristotles view on Happiness (Nichomeachean Ethics)"He is happy who lives in accordance with complete virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods, not for some chance period but throughout a complete life." -eudaimonism
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What is eudaimonism?reflects the view that well-being consists of fulfilling or realizing one’s daimon or true nature.
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In contrary to Arisotle's view on happiness?-Aristippus: "what is best is not abstaining from pleasures, but instead controlling them without being controlled." -Hedonism
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What is hedonism?reflects the view that well-being consists of pleasure or happiness.
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Major psychological topics back in the Antiquity and now?-body vs mind-personality-nature vs nurture-ethics/morality-the good life(happiness)
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1. “Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, and those commoner natures who pursue either to the exclusion of the other are compelled to stand aside, cities will never have rest from their evils — no, nor the human race, as I believe — and then only will this our State have a possibility of life and behold the light of day.”Plato
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2. ““The best thing is to possess pleasures without being their slave; not to be devoid of pleasures.”Aristippus
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3. “It is not necessary to ask whether soul and body are one, just as it is not necessary to ask whether the wax and its shape are one, nor generally whether the matter of each thing and that of which it is the matter are one. For even if one and being are spoken of in several ways, what is properly so spoken of is the actuality.“Aristotle
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a. Aristippus is considered the grounder of the hedonist school of thoughtTrue
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b. Plato, like Aristotle, seems to have endorsed a monist view on the mind- body relation.Wrong
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c. According to Socrates, knowledge is attained only through first-hand experience.Wrong
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d. Aristotle proposed a tripartite view of the soul/psyche that distinguished between vegetative, animal, and intellectual faculties/powers.True
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Protestant Reformation?-religious, intellectual and cultural upheaval initiated in the 16th century-Martin Luther started the movement, he protested against clerical abuses and the selling of indulgences
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What is Humanism?-philosophical and cultural movement -Value, agency(Vertretung) of human beings-critical thinking and evidence(rationalis, empiricism) over doctrine and faith-Erasmus, Kopernikus, Luther, Vesalius, Galilei
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Who was Erasmus?-1466Latin and Greek version of NewTestament-In Praise of Folly-critic of the church, but he accepted the authority of the pope->middle way
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Who was Vesalius?-Founder of modern human anatomy-Gave the "Basel Skeleton" to the Uni-Worlds oldest anatomical preparation
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Phineas Gage?-His mind was changed after the accident-"no longer Gage"
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What is Descartes Error?-Damasio and others:The Error was the dualist seperation of mind and body, rationality and emotion.-Phineas: rational decision, emotion is not functioning well, but solving an abstract,logical problem and calling up some knowledge is intact.-Hypothesis : Emotion and its underlying neural machinery participate one decision making.
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Who was Franics Bacon?
-Empirist(experience source of konwledge)-Established the scientific method opposed to Arisotles view-induktion-the ability to generalize a finding stepwise based on accumulating data (he advises this method)-building a case from the ground up-perception is limited-Denken frei von Irrtümern-Kenntnis und Anwendung der richtigen Methode -
“The syllogism is made up of propositions, propositions of words, and words are markers of notions. Thus if the notions themselves (and this is the heart of the matter) are confused, and recklessly abstracted from things, nothing built on them is sound. The only hope therefore lies in true Induction.”Franis Bacon
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“The syllogism is made up of propositions, propositions of words, and words are markers of notions. Thus if the notions themselves (and this is the heart of the matter) are confused, and recklessly abstracted from things, nothing built on them is sound. The only hope therefore lies in true Induction.”Franis Bacon
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Who suggests?that one draws up a list of all things in which the phenomenon to explain occurs, as well as a list of things in which it does not occur. Then one can rank the lists according to the degree in which the phenomenon occurs in each one. Then one should be able to deduce what factors match the occurrence of the phenomenon in one list and don't occur in the other list, and also what factors change in accordance with the way the data had been ranked.Bacon
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Some Rationalists and Empiralists?Hobbes RDescartes RSpinoza RKant RLocke ENewton EHume EBacon ELeibnizSmithRousseau
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What is Rationalism?Epistemological=Erkenntnistheorie-Reason is main source of knowledge-there are ways in which concepts and knowledge can be gained independently of sensory experience -deduction-Der Verstand erkennt die Wirklichkeit-Kritische Rationalismus ist von Poper begründet-vs Empirism-came with the Humanism
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What is Empiricism?-The epistemological(erkenntnistheoretische)View that experience is the main source of knowledge-induktion-no innate knowledge or deduction -kein a priori Wissen (aus reiner Vernunft) wie bei Rationalismus-Faktenwissen-vs. Rationalismus(Descartes,Kant)
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“The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of doubt.”Discours de la Methode from Descartes
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What is la Discours de la Methode about?-descartes-eine Vernunft zu gebrauchen-die Wahrheit in den Wissenschaften zu suchen
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Who was Descartes?-Discours de la Methode-Father of modern Psychology-Rationalist: Existenz von Gott ist durch reine Vernunft beweisbar-Dualist: the mind interacts with the body at the pineal gland, " the seat of the soul".Soul and many areas of the brain the pineal gland appeared to be unitary.The pineal gland is located near the ventricles and Descartes believed the cerebrospinal fluid acted through the nerves to control the body.-Nativist:Innate understanding of concepts-proposes a synthesis of experience and reason
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Who was John Locke?-Empirist-at birth the mind is a blank state, tabula rasa->no innate-contrary to the cartesian philosophy(descartes)-knowledge through experience, sense perception
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Who was David Hume-Empirist-philosophier, economist, historian-" A treatise to human nature"-knowledge only of the objects of experience and the relations of ideas-inductive reasoning and therefore causality cannot ultimately be justified, cant believe in causality-> its not logic, we do it out of custom, experience and habit-critics locke
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Who was Karl Popper?Logic of Scientific Discovery:-rejected inductivist-empirical falsification: it just can be falsified-it should be scrutinised(untersucht) by decisive experiments
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What is Associationism?= Vereinigung-The idea, that mental processes operate by the association of mental states.The principles of association(Verbindung) are still studied today, for example, concerning the principles of semantic knowledge acquisition and representation
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Network or Associationist Represenatations of Semantic KnowledgeDifferent ways how to represent semantic knowledge-tree-structured-random, scalefree
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What is Associationism?-Platon, Hobbes, Locke, Hume-Bezeichnung für psychologische Richtung: "Assoziation" Begriffe und Gedanken sind aus Sinneseindrücken zusammen gesetztBezeichnung (oft abwertend) für philosophische oder psychologische Theorien, die Assoziationen als grundlegendes Prinzip für alle geistigen Leistungen annehmen und damit auch höhere geistige Funktionen (z.B. kreatives Denken) erklären bzw. wesentlich reduzieren. Der Assoziationismus steht damit im Gegensatz zu Theorien, die die Unabhängigkeit des Geistigen propagieren (z.B. Feldtheorie, Gestalttheorie, Fähigkeitspsychologie)
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What have Rationalist and Empiralists in common?-Both epistemological = Erkenntnistheorie-go beyond religious dogma-propose new methodologies to uncover the truth with systematic methods(i.e. Science)-Diffrent emphasis on Deduction vs. Induction
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Word "Psychology" throughout the ages-First: Croatian humanist Marco used it-Göckel-Wolff-19th century psychology overtook "mental philosophy"
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1. “The long chains of simple and easy reasonings by means of which geometers are accustomed to reach the conclusions of their most difficult demonstrations, had led me to imagine that all things, to the knowledge of which man is competent, are mutually connected in the same way, and that there is nothing so far removed from us as to be beyond our reach, or so hidden that we cannot discover it, provided only we abstain from accepting the false for the true, and always preserve in our thoughts the order necessary for the deduction of one truth from another.”Descartes
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2. “Though experience be our only guide in reasoning concerning matters of fact; it must be acknowledged, that this guide is not altogether infallible, but in some cases is apt to lead us into errors.Hume
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3. “Not unlike this is the true business of philosophy; for it neither relies solely or chiefly on the powers of the mind, nor does it take the matter which it gathers from natural history and mechanical experiments and lay it up in the memory whole, as it finds it, but lays it up in the understanding altered and digested. Therefore from a closer and purer league between these two faculties, the experimental and the rational (such as has never yet been made), much may be hoped.”Bacon
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a. Descartes is considered the founder of the scientific method.Wrong
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b. Locke and Hume can be said to represent the nativist school of thought. c. According to Hume, only deduction can be used to acquire knowledge.Both wrong c. also empiristic
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d. The term “psychology” was first used when Erasmus proposed an empirical, inductive investigation of mental faculties.Wrong
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What is the Evolutionary Theory?Theories proposing evolution in the heritable traits of biological populations over successive(aufeinanderfolgende)generations.
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What is Psychophysics?Quantitatively investigates the relationship between a physical stimuli and sensation/perception.
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What is phrenology?-Pseudoscience-proposed to identify the link between mental faculties and measurements of human skull-Gall -Fodor
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Who was Darwin?-evolutionary theories-naturalist, geologist-"all species have descendet over time from common ancestors"-worked with Wallace: branching pattern of evolution resulted from natural selection-collects data, fossils about the diversity of species-"the origin of species"
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Who was Lamarck?-before Darwin-animal adapt to their environment-evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws-Philosophie zoologique:a force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity and a second environmental force adapted them to a local environments through use and disuse of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms.-still a debat
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Chambers-Vestige of the Natural history of Creation from an anonymous-Theory of Transmutation-It suggests that everything currently in existence has developed from earlier forms, including all life forms and man-little ways of expaining mechanisms of this
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Who was Wallace?-conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection-fieldwork-Wallace Line :animals are Asian/Australasian at each side
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Darwins finches?-"Galapagos finches"-example for adaptive radiation-Beaks are adapted to diffrent food sources, so to the environment
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Adaptive Radiation?-process-Organisms change in multiple forms when a change in the environment makes new resources available-speciation and phenotypic adaption so they adapt to new environments
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Which two ways of thinking exist in the ancient Greece?-Idealism(seperation of the immortal and nonmaterial soul&body, Plato, soul is part of the world of ideas)-Materialism(soul is from a material matter)
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What is Natural SelectionThe differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype(for example the composite/Zusammensetzung of an organisms observable characteristics or traits such as its morphology/Formenlehre but also behavior or products of behavior) als natürliche Selektion in der Reduzierung des Fortpflanzungserfolgs bestimmter Individuen einer Population mit der Folge, dass andere Individuen, die im Rückblick als „überlebenstüchtiger“ erkennbar sind, sich stärker vermehren.
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Which tree conditions are used for natural selection?-Variation-> Differ from each other-Differental Reproduction/Selection-> number of offsprings(Nachkommen) of the diffrent types-Heredity->fittest type survive inherited by the successful progeny
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Why doesn't Evolution leads to the optimal design?Evolution through natural selection has no goals, it works like a sieve(Sieb)Nature doesn't "decide" that giraffes should develope a long neck.Giraffes with long necks (Variation) had advantages(Selection) and their trait(long necks) was passed on future generations
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“In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.”Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species
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“Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, etc., yet if their whole organisation be taken into consideration they are found to resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of these points are of so unimportant or of so singular a nature, that it is extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark holds good with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous points of mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. The American aborigines, Negroes and Europeans differ as much from each other in mind as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck, whilst living with the Fuegians on board the Beagle, with the many little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro ..According to Darwin evolution applies to men....
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Evolutionary Thesis from DarwinInnate emotions and universal signalsCharles Darwin: The expression of the emotions
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What is Social Darwinism?-good and bad gen material, promote the good-Its a set of theories which claim to apply biological concepts of natural selection to sociology and politics-Strong should see their wealth and power increase and the weak should see their wealth and power decrease->natural order
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What is Eugenics?-Wants to improve the genetic quality of human population-promotion of more sexual activity of people with desired traits
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What is Phrenology?-Links between mental faculties and measurement of the skull.-Pseudosciene
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Who was Gall?-study the location of mental functions in the brain-founder of Phrenology -Controversial by that time, today claimed as a Pseudosciene-helped establish psychology as a science-played a part in the development of evolutionist theories, anthropology and sociology
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Who was Fodor?-philosopher, cognitive scientist, from today -revived the idea of the modularity of the mind(like a new phrenology)-modular system must fulfill certain properties-domain specific, specialized and fixed neural architecture-the idea was good(diffrent parts have diffrent functions) but the method was wrong
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Who played a role in Psychophysics ?WeberStevensFechner
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Who was Weber?-one of the founders of experimental psychology-studies on sensation and touch-good experimental techniques
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Who was Fechner?-experimental psychologist-founder of psychophysics-non-linear relationship between psychological sensation and the physical intensity of a stimulus : S=K log1 (Weber Fechner Law) -Unterschiedsschwelle:Ein Unterschied zwischen zwei Reizen, etwa Farben oder Tönen, wird nur dann erkannt, wenn die Differenz zwischen beiden Reizen ein Mindestmaß, die sog. Unterschiedsschwelle, überschreitet. Man unterscheidet zwischen der absoluten und der relativen Unterschiedsschwelle, diese Schlussfolgerung floss in das Weber-Fechner-Gesetz ein.
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What is the Weber-Fechner Law?S= K log 1Intensität eines Sinnesreizes und Stärke von Empfindungen haben eine Zahlenmässige BeziehungEstimated(geschätzt) vs ActualThe Curve shows some concavity(form) but is not clear as the expected curve for brightness
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Who was Steven?-Stevens power law: S=K la-its better than the Fechner-Weber law because it describes a wider range of sensations-more flexible in the relation between a stimuli and its intensity/strength-a simple function about the link between brightness and shock-shape can be diffrent depending on the pain-It depends on the stimuli X-achse: stimulus magnitudeY-achse: Psychological MagnitudeShock and Brightness
