BIOL1010 Exam 1

Chemicals, Molecules, Organelles, Cells, Tissue, Organ, Systems, Organism

Body temperature: Cold (stimulus) triggers sensors in the body to send a message to the temperature regulations part of the brain (the control). The brain sends out effectors which give the body commands such as to shiver and divert blood to the trunk of the body. This attempts to maintain homeostasis.

Negative feedback: a mechanism that reverses deviation from the normal range of homeostasis. Body temperature: When the body gets too warm, sensors send a message to the brain (control) and the brain sends out effectors that tell the body to divert blood close to the skin and to begin sweating so as to release some heat.

Positive feedback: a mechanism that intensifies a change in the body's condition in response to a stimulus- Childbirth: contractions (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix. The nerves in the cervix (sensors) monitor the degree of stretching. They send messages to the brain (control) to release oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in the uterus (the effectors), pushing the baby further down the birth canal until it is born. When the baby is born, contractions stop and the body goes back to homeostasis.

Anatomy

Gross or macroscopic anatomy

microscopic anatomy

Homeostasis

Reproductive It is essential to understand the reproductive system as a midwife. Understanding this system aids midwives in monitoring clients as well as educating them Endocrine- produces hormones necessary for pregnancy and birth Muscular- the muscular system holds the baby in place and aids in ejecting it when it is ready for birth

Atom- proton, neutron, and electron

Oxygen (65%), Carbon (18%), Hydrogen (10%), Nitrogen (3%)

A compound is 2 or more different molecules bonded together. A molecule contains two or more atoms of the same type of element. N2 is an example of a molecule that is not a compound. It consists of only nitrogen. CO2 is a compound because it contains two different types of molecules, Carbon and oxygen.

5: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulfur

Yes. It consists of more than two kinds of elements.

In a single molecule, there are 43 atoms of carbon

Oxytocin is an organic compound because it contains both Carbon and Hydrogen. While an inorganic compound may contain carbon OR hydrogen, an organic compound must contain both.

Solute: oxygen, because it dissolves into the solvent Solvent: Blood, because it is what the solute dissolves into

pH measures the positive hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. On a scale of 0-14, 0 is the most acidic while 14 is the most alkaline. 7 is neutral. The average pH of human blood is 7.4.

a pH buffer is a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base with its conjugate acid.

An acid is a compound that releases positive hydrogen (H+) ions into a solution

A base is a compound that releases hydroxide ions (OH-) into a solution. When it combines with H+ ions it negates the hydrogen making the solution more alkaline.

-Water is considered a "universal" solvent- it is a part of many different types of solutions that keep that body functioning -It is a major component of the body's lubricating fluids- between joints and helping the lungs expand and retract -Cushions cells from physical trauma -Absorbs and dissipates heat -Involved in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

Carbohydrates are made up of 1 Carbon, 2 Hydrogen, and 1 Oxygen (CH2O). These are predominantly known as sugars, three of which include glucose, sucrose, and fructose. Lipids are negative hydrocarbons that are hydrophobic, thus they do not mix (or do not mix easily) in water. Examples of lipids include triglycerides and the phospholipid bilayer of cells. Proteins are amino acids that are joined together by peptide bonds. Examples include collagen and keratin which help maintain cell structure. Nucleotides are compounds that contain one or more phosphate group, a pentose sugar (such as deoxyribose or ribose) and a nitrogen base (such as uracil) and are important to structure and function of the human body. Nucleotides can be turned into nucleic acid such as DNA, RNA and ATP.

Hypertonic, dehydrated, not enough water, too much of a solute Isotonic, perfectly balanced Hypotonic, too much water, not enough of a solute, could burst

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleotide that stores genetic material. DNA consists of a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogen base. This nitrogen base lacks carbon which makes DNA distinct from RNA whose nitrogen base contains carbon. The nitrogen bases of DNA are Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine

RNA is a nucleotide that helps synthesize DNA into protein. RNA contains a phosphate group, a ribose sugar, and a nitrogen base. This base contains carbon in it while DNA's nitrogen base does not. The nitrogen bases of RNA are: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil.

mRNA- (messenger RNA) is responsible for transcribing segments of DNA and creating copies to carry out of the nucleus and attaches itself to a ribosome where its copy will be translated into protein. rRNA- (ribosomal RNA), along with proteins, make up the building blocks of ribosomes which is where mRNA brings copies of DNA to be translated into protein. tRNA- or transfer RNA, is the type of RNA that comes to the ribosome to “translate” the code sequences of the mRNA. Knowing this information, the tRNA carries the appropriate amino acids to the correct sequence on the mRNA template. These amino acids eventually form a polypeptide chain.

When a cell is in the process of cell division, chromatin tightly wind up to create chromosomes, which are composed of DNA (a deoxyribose-containing nucleotide that stores genetic material) and specific proteins. When a cell is not dividing, these chromosomes relax back into chromatin. Protein synthesis is the process of "reading" genes (segments of DNA) and through several steps, takes this reading and turns the genes into proteins....

Initiation- enzymes such as helicase unwind the double-helix structure of DNA into two separate strands Elongation: Each strand becomes a template that DNA polymerase reads and brings the appropriate complimentary bases to them. For example, if the DNA strand contained the sequence: Adenine, Adenine, Guinine, the DNA polymerase would bring in the complementary bases of Thymine, Thymine, Cytosine. Termination- the sequence at the end of the DNA strand signals where the DNA polymerase should stop replicating. It also adds free nucleotides to the end of the DNA templates and their new copies to bind them together in a double-helix structure.

Age- only specific types of stem cells are found during certain stages of life: embryonic, fetal, and adult. Transcription factor- a type of protein that only binds to specific genes to turn them "on" or "off". Environmental influence- outside factors can influence cell differentiation such as toxins, temperature, viruses and bacteria.

1-2 hours. Although the shortest segment in the cell's life cycle, it is broken up into 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. Typically, mitosis is followed by cytokinesis where the cell is divided into two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis is the process in which a diploid germ cell divides twice to produce 4 haploid gamete cells. These gamete cells contain half of the genetic information (half the chromosomes) of the original germ cell......

Mitosis is the process of somatic cells dividing into two identical daughter cells. There are 4 phases of mitosis: Prophase- Centrosomes move away from each other to opposite sides of the cell. Their mitotic spindles begin reaching for chromosomes, located in the nucleus, but the nuclear envelope has disintegrated. Metaphase- the chromosomes move to the metaphase plate and form a single-file line. The mitotic spindles attach themselves the the sister chromatids from each side. Anaphase- The mitotic spindles separate the sister chromatids and pull them in opposite directions. Telophase- Two new nuclei develop around each set of chromosomes and the mitotic spindles separate. A nucleoli appears in each nucleus, the chromosomes relax into chromatin, and the mitotic spindles disintegrate. Typically, after mitosis, cytokinesis follows and the cell separates into two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis is different from mitosis in that meiosis only occurs in germ (sex) cells , whereas mitosis occurs in somatic cells. Meiosis is the process in which a germ cell undergoes division twice to form 4 daughter cells. These are not identical and they contain half of the chromosomes of the original cell. Mitosis on the other hand, undergoes division once to form two identical daughter cells that contain the same number of chromosomes as the original somatic cell.

Sister chromatids consist of a chromosome that has been copied and they are attached to each other by a centromere. A homologous chromosome pair, however, are two sets of sister chromatids, each set is inherited from a different parent. These homologous chromosome pairs swap identical genes during Meiosis, making them unique.