Flashcards: ENGLISH GRAMMAR

A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.Example: "The dog barked loudly."

A word that takes the place of a noun.Example: "She loves to read books."

A word that expresses an action or state of being.Example: "He runs every morning."

A word that describes or modifies a noun.Example: "The blue sky is clear."

A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, often ending in -ly.Example: "She sings beautifully."

A word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence.Example: "The cat is on the roof."

A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.Example: "I want to go for a walk, but it’s raining."

A word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or surprise.Example: "Wow! That’s amazing!"

A noun that represents a group of individuals or things.Example: "A flock of birds flew overhead."

A specific name for a person, place, or organization, always capitalized.Example: "Paris is the capital of France."

A noun that represents an idea, quality, or state rather than a concrete object.Example: "Her happiness was contagious."

A noun that refers to a physical object that can be perceived by the senses.Example: "The apple is on the table."

A pronoun that points to specific things.Example: "This is my favorite book."

A pronoun that shows ownership.Example: "That book is mine."

A verb that requires one or more objects.Example: "She kicked the ball."

A verb that does not require an object.Example: "He sleeps peacefully."

A conjunction that connects words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank.Example: "I want pizza and pasta."

A conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause.Example: "I will go to the park if it stops raining."

Pairs of conjunctions that work together.Example: "Both the teacher and the students were excited."

A pronoun that introduces a relative clause.Example: "The book that you gave me is fascinating."

Common Noun: General names (e.g., "city," "dog")

Proper Noun: Specific names (e.g., "New York," "Rover")

Abstract Noun: Names for ideas or concepts (e.g., "freedom," "happiness")

Concrete Noun: Names for physical objects (e.g., "apple," "car")

Personal Pronouns: (e.g., "I," "you," "he," "she," "it")

Possessive Pronouns: (e.g., "mine," "yours," "his")

Demonstrative Pronouns: (e.g., "this," "that," "these," "those")

Relative Pronouns: (e.g., "who," "whom," "which," "that")

Action Verbs: (e.g., "run," "jump," "think")

Linking Verbs: (e.g., "is," "are," "seem")

Auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs): (e.g., "have," "will," "can")

Descriptive Adjectives: (e.g., "happy," "blue," "tall")

Quantitative Adjectives: (e.g., "some," "many," "few")

Demonstrative Adjectives: (e.g., "this," "that")

Possessive Adjectives: (e.g., "my," "your")

Adverbs of Manner: (e.g., "quickly," "softly")

Adverbs of Time: (e.g., "now," "yesterday")

Adverbs of Place: (e.g., "here," "there")

Adverbs of Degree: (e.g., "very," "quite")

Coordinating Conjunctions: (e.g., "for," "and," "nor," "but," "or," "yet," "so")

Subordinating Conjunctions: (e.g., "because," "although," "if")

Correlative Conjunctions: (e.g., "either...or," "neither...nor")

Habitual Actions: "She wakes up early every day."

General Truths: "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."

Facts/Truth: "The Earth orbits the Sun."

Actions Happening Now: "I am reading a book."

Current Ongoing Activities: "They are studying for their exams."

Future Arrangements: "We are meeting them tomorrow."

Unspecified Time in the Past: "I have seen that movie before."

Actions Starting in the Past and Continuing: "She has lived here for five years."

Recent Actions with Present Relevance: "He has just finished his homework."

Duration of an Ongoing Action: "I have been working here since 2020."

Recently Stopped Actions: "They have been playing soccer, and now they are tired."

Emphasizing the Duration: "She has been studying for three hours."

Completed Actions at a Specific Time: "I visited my grandparents last weekend."

Series of Completed Actions: "He woke up, got dressed, and left for work."

Past Facts: "She graduated from college in 2015."

Ongoing Actions in the Past: "I was reading when the phone rang."

Interrupted Actions: "They were playing soccer when it started to rain."

Background Actions: "While she was cooking, he was setting the table."

Action Completed Before Another Past Action: "She had left before I arrived."

Cause and Effect in the Past: "He had studied hard, so he passed the exam."

Reported Speech: "She said she had seen that movie."

Emphasizing Duration Before Another Action: "They had been waiting for an hour when the bus finally arrived."

Cause of a Past Situation: "I was tired because I had been running all morning."

Ongoing Action Before a Specific Time: "She had been working there for five years when she got promoted."

Actions That Will Happen: "I will travel to France next year."

Promises or Offers: "I will help you with your homework."

Predictions: "It will rain tomorrow."

Ongoing Actions at a Specific Future Time: "At this time tomorrow, I will be flying to New York."

Future Arrangements: "We will be having dinner at 7 PM."

Polite Inquiries: "Will you be joining us later?

Action Completed Before a Specific Future Time: "By next month, I will have finished the report."

Predictions About Completion: "She will have graduated by the time we visit."

Deadline: "They will have completed the project by Friday."

Ongoing Actions at a Specific Future Time: "This time next week, I will be relaxing on the beach."

Future Arrangements: "We will be attending a conference next month."

Polite Inquiries: "Will you be joining us for dinner?"

Action Completed Before a Specific Future Time: "By the end of the year, I will have saved enough money for a vacation."

Predictions About Completion: "She will have completed her degree by next summer."

Deadline: "They will have finished the report by the deadline."

Emphasizing Duration Up to a Future Point: "By the time you arrive, I will have been studying for three hours."

Cause of Future Situation: "I will be tired because I will have been working all day."

Ongoing Action Before a Specific Time: "By next year, she will have been living in this city for a decade."

Usage: To express a desire for a present situation to be different.

Structure: Wish + subject + past simple verb.

Example: "I wish I had a bigger house." (I don't have a bigger house.)

Usage: To express a desire for a future situation to be different.

Structure: Wish + subject + would + base form of the verb.

Example: "I wish you would stop smoking." (I want you to stop smoking.)

Usage: To express regret about a past situation.

Structure: Wish + subject + had + past participle.

Example: "I wish I had studied harder for the exam." (I didn't study hard enough.)

Usage: "If only" can be used interchangeably with "wish" for emphasis.

Structure: If only + subject + past simple / would / had + past participle.

Example: "If only I knew the answer." (I don't know the answer.)

Example: "If only she would call me." (I want her to call me.)

Usage: To express a desire for change in circumstances or behavior.

Structure: Wish + subject + would + base form of the verb.

Example: "I wish my neighbor would keep the noise down."

Example: "I wish my friend would be more supportive."

Usage: In formal contexts, "wish" can imply a subjunctive mood for hypothetical situations.

Structure: Wish + subject + (were) + complement.

Example: "I wish she were here." (Formal way to express a desire for her presence.)

Usage: To express a wish for something unlikely or impossible.

Structure: Wish + subject + past simple verb.

Example: "I wish I could fly." (Flying is impossible for me.)

Definition: A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun, providing additional information about it.

Example: "The book that I borrowed was fascinating." (The clause "that I borrowed" gives more information about "the book.")

Definition: There are two main types of relative clauses: defining (restrictive) and non-defining (non-restrictive).

Example:

Defining: "The man who lives next door is a doctor." (Essential information.)

Non-defining: "My brother, who lives in New York, is visiting." (Additional, non-essential information.)

Usage: Provides essential information about the noun, without which the sentence would not make sense.

Example: "The car that I bought is red." (Without the clause, we don’t know which car is being referred to.)

Usage: Adds extra information that can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence. It is usually set off by commas.

Example: "My sister, who is an artist, painted this picture." (Removing the clause still keeps the main idea intact.)

Definition: Relative clauses often begin with relative pronouns such as "who," "whom," "whose," "which," and "that."

Example:

"The teacher who taught me is retiring." (referring to a person)

"The book which I read was interesting." (referring to a thing)

Usage: "Who" is used for the subject of the clause, while "whom" is used for the object.

Example:

"The woman who called you is my aunt." (subject)

"The man whom I met yesterday is a lawyer." (object)

Usage: "Whose" is used to show possession.

Example: "The girl whose bike was stolen is my friend." (indicating possession of the bike)

Usage: "Which" is used in non-defining clauses, while "that" is used in defining clauses.

Example:

"The car, which is red, is mine." (non-defining)

"The car that I drive is red." (defining)

Usage: In some cases, the relative pronoun can be omitted, especially in defining relative clauses.

Example: "The book (that) I borrowed is on the table." (The word "that" can be omitted.)

Usage: When a relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, the preposition can come before the pronoun.

Example: "The person to whom I spoke was helpful." (Formal)

Example: "The person who I spoke to was helpful." (Informal)

Usage: "Where" is used to refer to a place.

Example: "The restaurant where we had dinner was excellent." (The clause provides information about the restaurant.)

Usage: "When" is used to refer to a time.

Example: "I remember the day when we first met." (The clause gives information about the day.)

Usage: In informal speech, "that" is often used instead of "which" in non-defining clauses, though this is less formal.

Example: "My dog, that I adopted last year, is very playful." (Informal usage.)

Usage: You can include adjectives in relative clauses to provide more detail.

Example: "The artist who painted this beautiful mural is famous." (The adjective "beautiful" describes the mural.)

Usage: Relative clauses can be used in passive constructions.

Example: "The book that was written by the author won an award." (The clause uses passive voice.)

Usage: "Which" is often used for animals or objects, especially in non-defining clauses.

Example: "The car, which is parked outside, belongs to my brother." (Refers to the car, a non-human subject.)

Usage: "Whichever" can be used to indicate a choice among options.

Example: "You can choose whichever book you like." (The clause specifies the choice.)

Usage: "Whatever" can be used to refer to anything or everything.

Example: "She will support you whatever you decide." (The clause indicates unconditional support.)

Usage: "Whoever" is used to refer to any person or people.

Example: "Whoever finishes the race first will win a prize." (The clause refers to any person who finishes first.)

Definition: A reduced relative clause is a shorter form of a relative clause that omits the relative pronoun and the verb "to be."

Example: "The man (who is) wearing a hat is my uncle." → "The man wearing a hat is my uncle."

Structure: Remove the relative pronoun (who, which, that) and the verb "to be" if it is present.

Example: "The book (that is) on the table is mine." → "The book on the table is mine."

Usage: Reduced relative clauses are often used to make sentences more concise and fluid.

Example: "The students (who are) studying in the library are quiet." → "The students studying in the library are quiet."

Usage: If the relative clause contains "being," it can be omitted.

Example: "The students (who are being) praised are happy." → "The students praised are happy."

Usage: Reduced relative clauses often use present participles (-ing form) to convey ongoing actions.

Example: "The man (who is) running in the park is my brother." → "The man running in the park is my brother."

Usage: Past participles can also be used in reduced relative clauses to indicate completed actions.

Example: "The book (that is) written by that author is a bestseller." → "The book written by that author is a bestseller."

Usage: Reduced relative clauses can simplify complex sentences for clarity.

Example: "The professor (who is) known for his research will give a lecture." → "The professor known for his research will give a lecture."

Usage: You can include adjectives in reduced relative clauses to provide additional detail.

Example: "The painting (that is) beautiful is for sale." → "The painting beautiful is for sale."

Usage: You can have multiple reduced relative clauses in a single sentence.

Example: "The students (who are) studying and (who are) preparing for exams are focused." → "The students studying and preparing for exams are focused."

Usage: Reduced relative clauses can enhance the sophistication of your writing but should be used judiciously in formal contexts.

Example: "The report (which is) due tomorrow is essential." → "The report due tomorrow is essential."

Usage: Reduced relative clauses can also convey non-defining information, but clarity is key.

Example: "My sister, (who is) a doctor, is visiting." → "My sister, a doctor, is visiting." (Be cautious of ambiguity.)

Example 1: "The athlete (who is) competing in the Olympics is from our town." → "The athlete competing in the Olympics is from our town."

Example 2: "The movie (that is) directed by that filmmaker is a hit." → "The movie directed by that filmmaker is a hit."