Modernization Theory (Lipset)
Definition: Economic development and modernization lead to democratization as societies become wealthier, more educated, and industrialized.
Key Mechanism: A growing middle class demands political participation.
Example: South Korea's democratization after economic development.
Semi-Presidential System
Definition: A government system with a directly elected president and a prime minister responsible to parliament.
Author: Robert Elgie (1999)
Examples: France, Poland, Ukraine.
State (Definitional Features)
Components: Monopoly of legitimate violence, territoriality, sovereignty, population (not just demographics but a defined people).
Prime Ministerial Government
Definition: The prime minister dominates decision-making, often sidelining other ministers.
Example: The United Kingdom under Margaret Thatcher, where the prime minister held substantial decision-making authority.
Sources of Legitimacy (Weber)
Traditional: Based on custom/history, long-established institutions.
Example: British Monarchy.
Charismatic: Derived from a leader’s personal appeal and ideas.
Example: Fidel Castro in Cuba.
Rational-Legal: Based on rules and formal institutions.
Example: U.S. presidents under a constitutional framework.
Author: Max Weber
Divided Government (In Presidential Systems)
Definition: Occurs when the presidency is controlled by one party, and at least one chamber of Congress by another.
Example: U.S. government during Barack Obama's presidency (2010-2016) with a Republican-controlled House.
Three Waves of Democratization
First Wave: 1828–1926 (early democracies, U.S. and France).
Second Wave: 1943–1962 (post-WWII, decolonization).
Third Wave: 1974–present (Latin American, Eastern Europe).
Author: Samuel Huntington
Coalition Government (Parliamentary Systems)
Definition: When multiple political parties cooperate to form a majority in the legislature.
Example: Germany's coalition governments formed between the CDU and SPD.
Procedural vs. Substantive Definitions of Democracy
Procedural: Focus on methods like elections and accountability mechanisms.
Example: U.S. procedural democracy with regular elections.
Substantive: Emphasizes outcomes such as equity and fairness.
Example: Scandinavian democracies focusing on inclusiveness and equality.
Types of Constitutions
Absolutist: Centralized, rulers are "above the law."
Example: North Korea.
Legislative Supremacy: Legislature holds ultimate authority, no higher legal power.
Example: The UK.
Higher Law: Rights constrain authority, judicial review is used.
Example: U.S. Constitution.
Fused-Power System
Definition: The executive is selected from and accountable to the legislature.
Example: The UK’s parliamentary system where the prime minister is chosen by parliament.
American vs. European Constitutional Review
American: Decentralized, any court can review constitutional issues within specific cases.
Example: U.S. Supreme Court rulings like Marbury v. Madison.
European: Special constitutional courts conduct abstract review (by request before the law is implemented).
Example: Germany’s Federal Constitutional Court.
Lijphart & Gerring Typology of Democracy
Majoritarian-Unitary: Concentrated power in a dominant party, centralized government.
Example: The United Kingdom.
Proportional-Unitary: Centralized government with proportional representation.
Example: Sweden.
Majoritarian-Decentralist: Majoritarian elections with decentralized power.
Example: The United States.
Proportional-Decentralist: Proportional representation with decentralized governance.
Example: Switzerland.
Types of Authoritarian Regimes
Personalist Dictatorships: Power centered around a single leader.
Example: North Korea under Kim Jong-un.
Single-Party Regimes: Dominated by a single political party.
Example: China (Communist Party).
Monarchies: Hereditary rule.
Example: Saudi Arabia.
Military Regimes: Controlled by the military.
Example: Egypt under various military rulers.
Factors Contributing to Authoritarian Longevity
Repression: Limits opposition through force.
Example: Saudi Arabia's repression of dissent.
Legitimacy: Derived from tradition, religion, or performance.
Example: Economic legitimacy in China.
Economic Performance: High growth stabilizes regimes.
Example: Singapore.
Co-optation: Offers rewards to elites and opposition to ensure loyalty.
Example: Mexico under the PRI.
Three main research traditions of Comparative Political studies
Institutions: This perspective focuses on formal governance structures and their impact on political behavior. It includes normative institutionalism (James March and Johan P. Olsen), rational choice institutionalism, and historical institutionalism (Paul Pierson). Institutionalism is better at explaining stability than change.
Interests: This approach, associated with rational choice theory, examines how individual and group preferences influence political actions. It often explores interactions between societal interests and the state. Mancur Olson's "The Logic of Collective Action" is a key text in this area.
Ideas: This perspective emphasizes political culture, ideologies, and policy ideas in shaping political outcomes. Almond and Verba's "The Civic Culture" is noted for its work on political culture. This approach highlights the role of values and beliefs in political landscapes.
The two dimensions of developing democracy
Inclusiveness (voting rights/suffrage)
Contestation (party competition, associations, socio-political liberalization e.g. free speech)
The roles (functions) of the legislature
They perform representation/linkage, oversight/control, and policy-making.
Linkage: Intermediary between citizens/voters (the constituency) to the government. Representation: To represent their constituents, protecting and advocating for their interests. Oversight: Monitoring the executive: passage of policies & their implementation. Control: Reflects the primary tools to achieve representative democracy.
The main categories of electoral systems
Electoral systems fall into two main categories: majoritarian and proportional.
Majoritarian systems (e.g., The U.S., the UK, Canada, India) tend to produce stable, single-party governments but can be less representative. In this system, usually, the strongest party in each constituency wins the seat.
Proportional representation (e.g., Netherlands, Brazil (legislative), Indonesia (legislative), Finland, and Spain) provides greater representativeness by allocating seats based on vote share, though it can lead to fragmented legislatures. The seats are shared among the parties in proportion to their vote shares. Proportional systems are often seen as more democratic due to their inclusivity, but majoritarian systems offer clearer accountability.