Linguistic Development in
Sentence Mastery
Debra Myhill
Every line, every phrase, may pass the ordeal
of deliberation and deliberate choice.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Conscious manipulation of syntax deepens
engagement and releases invention.
Ted Hughes
Theoretical Framework
A multidisciplinary framework for researching writing:
 Writing as cognitive process (psychological)
 Writing as social practice (socio-cultural)
 Writing as linguistic mastery (linguistic)
Theoretical Framework
What can linguistics offer to writing pedagogy?

Linguistics has not offered ‘the theoretical and
methodological tools either for the analysis of writing … or
for the analysis and understanding of the developmental
processes and stages in the learning of writing’ (Kress 1994)
 ‘We think it is possible to develop a linguistic theory of good
structures for sentences, paragraphs, and texts, but it
requires a new kind of linguistic analysis. Such a theory
would have direct implications for the teaching of writing’.
(Collins and Gentner 1980)
Theoretical Framework
The written sentence is different from the spoken
utterance:
 more integrated than speech;
 more complex structures;
 more subordination;
 more premodification;
 more participial subordination;
 greater lexical density.
Czerniewska 1992

‘the sentence belongs to writing’
(Kress 1994)
Theoretical Framework
Sentence variety:
‘lack of variety in sentence patterns is not necessarily
evident in oral language because the speaker is able to
vary the rhythm, speed and volume of delivery and to
place the intonation nucleus anywhere in the clause. In
writing, however, these paralinguistic and prosodic
features are absent, so monotony of grammatical
structure is thrown into prominence’.
Perera 1984
Theoretical Framework
From knowledge telling to knowledge transforming
(Bereiter and Scardamalia 1987)
From writing for self to writing for others
(Perera 1984)
The development of the monitor
(Hayes and Flower 1980)
Seeing writing as creative design
(Sharples 1999)
Methodology
Sample: 720 complete pieces of writing
Stratified by gender, and quality of writing
Year 8
(13yrs)
Year 10
Personal narrative
180
180
Argument
180
180
(15 yrs)
Methodology
 Detailed analysis of 100 words at sentence level
 Detailed analysis of whole piece at paragraph and text
level
 Quantitative and qualitative data
 Focus on making connections between linguistic
structures and construction of meaning
Methodology
Coding frame for sentence analysis:
Sentence length: shortest sentence; minor sentences
Clause structure: co-ordination; subordination; non-finite
clauses
Sentence openings: Subject; Adverbial; non-finite clause;
finite subordinate clause; fronting; clefting
Syntactical structures: inversions; subject clauses; number
and length of noun phrases
FINDINGS
Sentence Length
 Average sentence length increased with age, but not with
ability
 The longest sentence of able writers was longer than
average and weak writers
 The longest sentence of weak writers was often confused
 Able writers used sentence length/brevity as a way of
enhancing meaning
Sentence length: brevity
Good writers: use short sentences for effect or emphasis
 How unfair is that?
 No preparation had gone into this.
 It wasn’t a pleasant image.
 But we don’t.
Sentence length: juxtaposition
Ignorance is bliss. Apparently. Not so when you are sat
staring out of a window at a gorgeous spring day, but with
no clue as to the conversations going on around you, and no
indication that anyone wants you included at all.
To be honest, I hated Kenya! The clothes we wore became
sodden with sweat after a matter of minutes; the sun cream
was falling dismally (scarlet patches were erupting on my
shoulders and I couldn’t resist scratching the back of my
neck) and also the fruit my mum had packed into my bag
was crushed into the sort of mush commonly found in a pig’s
trough.
Sentence length: staccato
Good writers: use short staccato sentences for tension
What would happen if I did rest? Surely a quick gasp of
refreshing air couldn’t hurt, could it? No, I didn’t dare
stop. They were behind me, and rapidly gaining
distance.
Sentence length: control?
A few years ago my brother, mum, dad and I went on a family holiday
to Ibiza in July. We were on a beach. Everyone was tired and
frustrated in the sweltering heat. The sea was warm and the sand
hot. My brother had just bought some new trainers in a local shop so
he was happy, running around. Later on, after we had been on the
beach for approximately one hour, hunger started to strike.
The fear about euthanasia is that some people may be persuaded into
euthanasia through bad advice or by fealing that they are a burden to
the family or society, with that many doctors, nurses and other people
believe that every life has hope and that any life is better than no life
at all.
Clause Patterns
 number of finite verbs decreases with increasing ability
 subordination and co-ordination decrease with increasing
ability
 use of subordinators differs with ability
Clause Patterns:
Is it because she makes music that truly touches millions of
people? No. Is it because she writes beautiful, thoughtprovoking novels? No. Is it because she paints stunning
pictures? No. It is purely the fact that she has huge breasts.
Clause Patterns:
Then I ran, and ran back to jane and she was sat crying on the grass.
we took her to first Aid. they gave her a plaster, then finally we made
some sand castles and after a while I heard a noise. it sounded like
the ringing of the school bells so jane and I ran to our teacher and
she took us back to the class room to do some colouring. I remember
colouring a picture of a bird and I gave it to jane and she coloured a
picture of a rabbit and gave it to me. Time pasted and it was nearly
time to go home so jane and I helped our teacher Mrs. butler to put
the colouring crayons away then sat at our places and waited for our
mums to pick us up.
Clause Patterns: expansion
Elaboration of the finite verbs:
However this was an adventure and I stepped off the
coach, anxious to explore the house, which stood so
tall, like a king proudly viewing his territory.
Simple sentences with complex sentences:
I stood directly in front of two gaping giants; the
elaborate designs on the doors were statements of
authority in themselves. The intricate details in the
patterns were absolutely amazing.
Clause Patterns: Subordinators
 good writing uses that more than weak writes who conversely
use zero that more than good writers;
 as and how are used more frequently in good writing;
 when, because, and if are used more frequently in weak writing
than in good writing;
 the non-standard use of like as a subordinator is a clear feature
of weaker writing but is not used at all in good writing;
 before; although; while; how much; and therefore more common
in good writing.
Sentence Openings
Weak writers: strong habit of using Subject Verb syntactical
structures; often includes repetition of a pronoun
Harriet and I were in Salcombe , on south sands beach. Mum
checked all our camping equipment and we were ready to go.
We went on the beach. Dad was getting our boat ready and
filling up the engine with petrol. We….
Sentence Openings
The use of adverbial openings appears to be a development
marker:
 Middle ability writers use more adverbials than weak writers;
 Year 8 able writers use more adverbials than other groups;
 Year 10 average writers use more adverbials than others.
Sentence Openings
Good writers use a wider range of openings, including non-finite
clauses and subject verb inversions:
After looking at all the possibilities, I will then make my own
mind up on whom or what I think he really is.
How easy, though, are catering companies making it to get a
decent meal of nutritional value in to school age children?
Over one of the bedknobs hung a school tie, a hat and a
fluorescent orange scarf.
Implications
 Linguistic analysis may be able to provide a coherent
explanation of progression in teenage writers
 Understanding how meaning is constructed through
linguistic structures may strengthen effective instruction
 Crafting the sentence is as important as crafting the text
 The curriculum and literacy policy initiatives need to
address meaningful connections between sentence
shaping and effects
 We need more and better research into effectiveness of
teaching about sentence design
What I know about grammar is its infinite power. To
shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of
that sentence, as definitely and inflexibly as the position
of a camera alters the meaning of the object
photographed.
Joan Didion, cited in Murray 1990