A Great Cloud of Witnesses:
40 Saints from Catholic History
Session 8:
13th Century – Elizabeth of Hungary, Hedwig, Clare
14th Century – Bridget, Catherine of Siena
13th Century
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Economic & cultural revival (1100-1300)
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Aftermath of the Crusades
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Increased trading contacts with the East and Arab world
Peace on the borders and within Europe: stability, growth
Growth of cities: result of increased commerce
Kings of France and England emerge stronger
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Hereditary monarchies: divine right of kings (theocratic)
 More stable than elective monarchy of Germany (emperor)
Also Spain and Low Countries (Belgium, Holland) strengthen
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Education
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Monastic centers of learning give way to urban centers: cathedral schools
Universities: Paris, Oxford, Bologna
 Revival of Greek learning: Aristotle on natural science
 Scholastic integration of Greek learning and Christian theology
 Anselm, Abelard, Peter Lombard, Albert the Great, Aquinas
University theologians and canonists take lead in church life
Pope Alexander III (1159-1181): first great lawyer pope
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Called 3rd Lateran Council in 1179: supported rise of universities, 2/3’s
majority required for papal elections
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Revival of the cities
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Merchants and artisans: “middle class” (money economy)
Great Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals become urban centers
Beginnings of modern vernacular languages (French, Italian, etc.)
 Dante writes Divine Comedy in Italian at end of 13th century
Rise of mendicant (“begging”) orders: urban monasticism
 Preaching and living the gospel in the world of the city
 Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, Canons Regular
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Key figures of the 13th century
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St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226)
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Born in 1181: son of a wealthy merchant of Assisi and his French wife
 He enjoyed his middle class life, but soon became disenchanted
Began to care for sick and lepers in Assisi and Rome; repair churches
1209: Francis devoted himself to poverty and preaching
 Soon he and seven followers chose not to be ordained as priests
 Called themselves “friars minors”: lesser brothers (OFM)
1210: Pope Innocent III approves new Franciscan order
 Rapid growth of this new urban religious order
Clare of Assisi was deeply moved by Francis’ life and preaching
 1211: she founds the Poor Clares
1223: he wrote final rule of Franciscan order
Died Oct. 3, 1226: canonized in 1228 by Pope Gregory IX (feast Oct. 4)
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St. Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221)
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1170: born to middle class parents in Castile (Spain)
 Studied at developing university at Palencia: arts and theology
 1194: he was ordained and became a canon of cathedral of Osma
1203-07: worked at converting the Cathars (Albigensians) in southern France
 Heretical movement in reaction to worldliness of many church leaders of
the time: radical asceticism
 He saw key to their conversion in excellent learning and simplicity of life
1215: Dominic went to the 4th Lateran Council (probably met St. Francis)
 Pope Innocent III approves Order of Preachers (OP): the Dominicans
 Emphasis on rigorous study, preaching, teaching
Aug. 6, 1221: Dominic died in Bologna
 Canonized in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX: feast August 8
Dominicans were key to developing universities
 Became great promoters of the Rosary
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Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)
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The greatest of the Medieval Popes
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Born in 1160 of a wealthy Roman family
 Studied theology at U. of Paris and law at U. of Bologna
 At age 30 he was made a cardinal by his uncle, Pope Clement III
1198: unanimously elected Pope at age 37 (Innocent III)
 He was a man born to rule: excellent intellect, character, insight
 Reorganized the Papal States: true founder
Very aware of the prestige of his office: exalted view
 First pope to use title “Vicar of Christ” in an official way
Innocent declared the Magna Carta void because it was extorted from the
king by barons without papal consent
His biggest mistake was the 4th Crusade (1204)
 He was furious at the attack on Constantinople
 This is the event that the Eastern Church cannot forgive or forget
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Sympathetic to concerns over church wealth/worldliness
 Supported work of Franciscans and Dominicans
 Story of his dream of little man holding up crumbling St. John Lateran:
Francis of Assisi
1215: called 4th Lateran Council (12th ecumenical, greatest Medieval council)
 Definition of eucharist in terms of “transubstantiation”
 Condemnation of various heresies: secular power to enforce
 Required all adult Christians to confess sins to priest once a year
He died in Perugia in 1216 (age 56)
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Elizabeth of Hungary, religious: 1207-1231 (Nov. 17)
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Born in 1207: daughter of Hungarian royalty
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Elizabeth was very devout: prayer, simple life, charity
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At age 4 she was betrothed to Ludwig of Thuringia (11): brought up with him
 They married in 1221 and he grew to love her deeply: three children
Her extraordinary generosity was criticized by some at court
Story of her placing a dying leper in the bed she shared with her husband
 He objected, but God opened his eyes to see the crucified Christ in him
1227: Ludwig died en route to Holy Land for a crusade
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Elizabeth mourned deeply at their castle in Wartburg (Thuringia)
She went to Kitzingen and left her children in care of the nuns there
Her uncle, the bishop of Bamberg, tried to arrange a new marriage for her
 But she refused: her and Ludwig had promised never to remarry
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1228: she received the habit of the Third Order of St. Francis
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She died on Nov. 17, 1231: at age 24
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Settled in a house near Marburg: built hospice for sick, poor, and elderly
Came under the influence of fanatical ascetic, Konrad of Marburg
 He was a former inquisitor: his severe discipline wore her down
A Magyar nobleman came to Marburg: urged her to return to Hungary
 She refused: committed to her hospice work
Her severe personal asceticism and constant work took its toll
She was buried in her hospice chapel: soon miracles were reported there
1235: Elizabeth of Hungary was canonized by Pope Gregory IX
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1236: her relics were transferred to new Church of St. Elizabeth in Marburg
1539: Lutheran prince had her relics removed: unknown to this day
In art she is portrayed as a queen or as a Franciscan tertiary
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Hedwig, religious: 1174-1243 (Oct. 16)
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1174: born in Bavaria, daughter of a count
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Their 7th and last child was born in 1209
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She then persuaded her husband to take vow of chastity with her
They lived apart: she eventually settled next to Cistercian nunnery
 There she shared the austere life of the nuns: much fasting
1238: her husband died
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At age 12 she was married to the Duke of Silesia: Henry
They founded many religious houses: Cistercian nuns in area of Poland
Also established hospitals and houses for lepers
Spent rest of her life trying to keep peace between her warring sons
She also dedicated much time to instructing the uneducated in their religion
She foretold her own death in 1243 (gift of prophecy)
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Canonized in 1267: feast extended to whole western Church on 1706
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Clare, virgin: 1193-1253 (Aug. 11)
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Born in Assisi in 1193: had younger sisters Agnes and Beatrice
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When she was 18 (1211) she heard Francis preach
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Time of great economic change and warfare: rising wealth of Italian cities
She was from a wealthy family: her father proposed a husband
She renounced idea of marriage: wanted to live simple lifestyle like him
They developed a close spiritual friendship: met often
1212: she ran away from home and came to Francis & companions
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She gave up her possessions, cut her hair, and took on a penitential habit
Her family came to bring her home, but she refused: Christ is her husband
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Francis established a nunnery near Assisi: placed Clare as superior
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Extremely austere form of life for women religious
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Her sister Agnes and others joined her: Francis drew up a rule for them
Monasteries of Poor Clare nuns were established in Italy, France, Germany
They wore no stockings, shoes, or sandals: slept on ground, never ate meat
No speaking unless necessity or charity demanded it
Later on Clare would mellow in asceticism
Clare would be sick and bedridden often for final 27 years of her life
She became the first woman to write a rule for religious women
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During debates among Franciscans after their founder’s death, she tended to
side with the more rigorous
Pope Gregory IX offered to absolve her from vow of strict poverty
 Clare: “I need absolution from my sins, not from having to follow Christ”
Later division between “Pure” Poor Clares and more moderate (“Urbanists”)
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Clare acted as abbess for almost 40 years: 1215 to her death in 1253
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She suffered much illness during last years of her life
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Always wanted to be a servant: washed sisters’ feet and tucked them into bed
Like Francis she was contemplative and had a love for the natural world
 Very cheerful demeanor
Legends of her prayers warding off invading armies of HRE Frederick II
Pope Innocent IV visited her and gave her absolution
1253: she died at age 60
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Pope Alexander IV canonized her in 1255
By the year 1400 there were over 400 Poor Clare nunneries in Europe
14th Century
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The Papacy at the turn of the century
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1245: Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated and deposed
France emerges as the new protector of the papacy
 King St. Louis IX of France (1226-1270)
Growing sense in Europe of papacy as worldly and corrupt
 Just like other political entities
 Influence of Albigensians and radical Franciscans
Legend of Pope Joan emerges (the Lady Pope from 9th century)
 Promulgated by popular preachers and Franciscan reformers
 Soon accepted as true: played on people’s worst fears
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Pope Nicholas IV died in 1292
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Conclave was deadlocked for two years
 A holy hermit, Pietro Morrone, revealed divine retribution if they failed
to elect a pope soon
Amazingly Morrone was elected pope: Celestine V (1294)
 He was an ascetic hermit who stood for poverty, simplicity
 Many thought he would be ideal to reform worldly papacy
But he was illiterate, aged, and fell under the control of king of Naples
 6 months after election he wanted to resign
 Consulted a canon lawyer, Benedetto Caetani, who assured him he
could abdicate: so he did in Dec. 1294
 Dante put Celestine in hell for this in his Divine Comedy
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Caetani was elected as Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
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One of the most famous and tumultuous pontificates in history
 He was a hard-headed lawyer, ambitious, autocratic, unscrupulous
A cloud hung over his pontificate
 Did he advise Pope Celestine to resign so that he could be pope?
 Dante puts him in hell for treachery and avarice
He had enemies among the Fraticelli: Franciscan radicals
 They were big fans of Celestine V
 Began a propaganda campaign against Boniface
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Conflict with King Philip IV (“Fair”) of France
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England and France were on verge of war: 100 Years War (1337-1453)
 Philip taxed the French clergy to help pay his armies
1302: Boniface released bull Unam Sanctum
 No names were mentioned, but “everyone is subject to Roman pontiff”
 Veiled threat of excommunication and deposition of Philip
Philip draws up long list of trumped-up charges against Boniface
 Insinuated Boniface imprisoned and killed Celestine V
Philip’s royal counselor, Guillaume de Nogoret, invades Rome
 With armed men they broke into papal palace, struck pope
The Romans came to Boniface’s rescue, drove out the intruders
 Boniface died a few months later (1303)
Moment of humiliation for papacy which had begun 13th century in such an
impressive way with Innocent III
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Papal conclave (“with key”) was bitterly divided
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Anti-French (pro-Boniface) vs. pro-French (anti-Boniface): 11 months
Finally, the archbishop of Bordeaux was elected: Pope Clement V (1305-14)
The Avignon Papacy (1305-1377): six French popes in a row
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Clement V stayed in France due to chaotic politics in Italy, to work on
peace between France & England, and due to illness (cancer)
 1309: he settled in bishop’s palace at Avignon (border with Italy)
 Appointed 24 cardinals; all but 1 were French
John XXII (1316-34), Benedict XII (1334-42), Clement VI (1342-52),
Urban V (1362-70), Gregory XI (1371-78)
 Lavish papal court at Avignon: papacy developed various taxes, fees,
dispensations, and indulgences to raise money
 Led to later resentment of papacy as exactor of money: Luther in 1517
1348: the Black Death (Bubonic Plague) swept through Europe
 Estimated 40% of Europe died (35 million people)
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Gregory XI (1371-78) was the last French pope
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Focused on returning the papacy to Rome: tomb of Peter
Catherine of Siena (Dominican): summer of 1376 in Avignon
 She strongly urged him to return papacy to Rome
1377: Gregory entered Rome with large force
Soon focused on the repression of heresy
 Situation in Italy grew worse: hostility of Romans over excessive
force
 Gregory died in 1378
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The Great Western Schism: 1378-1417
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At the conclave in Rome 12 of the 16 cardinals were French
 Roman people feared election of a Frenchman and return to Avignon
 Mob surrounded building: “Give us a Roman, or at least an Italian”
Cardinals elected an Italian, archbishop of Bari: Pope Urban VI
 He soon became abusive and paranoid: rumors that he had gone mad
Cardinals withdrew to Anagni, claimed they had elected him under coercion:
thus the election was invalid
 Elected a Frenchman as new pope: Clement VII (1378-1394)
Urban refused to step down: appointed 26 new Italian cardinals
Clement and his supporters took up residence at Avignon
Thus, two rival popes and two rival colleges of cardinals
 From 1409 there would be three rival popes!
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Bridget, religious: 1303-1373 (July 23)
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Birgitta was daughter of powerful Swedish provincial governor
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Bridget gained reputation for her care of the sick
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She insisted that her children accompany her on visits
1335: she became lady-in-waiting to Swedish queen
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As a child she had two visions: in one she was crowned by Our Lady, in
another she saw Christ on the cross
The sufferings of Jesus became the focus of her spiritual life
At age 14 she married Ulf Gudmarsson: they would have 8 children
Tried to change the royal couple’s lifestyle: but they resisted
1340: her youngest son died
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She and her husband went on pilgrimage to Compostela, Spain
 Shocked by the destruction in France caused by the 100 Years War
Her husband died in Spain: she remained there for 3 years as a penitent
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She returned to Sweden: had series of visions
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She founded the Order of the Most Holy Savior: the Bridgettines
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She began to wonder if they were delusions inspired by the devil
Jesus told her she would be his bride and mouthpiece
He also called her to help reform the monasteries of Sweden
Every detail of the rule was revealed to her in visions
Double monastery for men and women: Bridget as abbess
Bridgettine monastery at Vadstena became center of learning in Sweden
Her visions involved her in the politics of the day
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She tried to persuade Avignon popes to return to Rome
In vision Christ called Clement VI, “a destroyer of souls, worse than Lucifer”
 One envoy to Avignon refused to read her letter, it was so harsh
She was unsuccessful in persuading kings of England & France to end war
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Supported religious crusade of Sweden against pagan neighbors
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1350: in a vision she was directed to go to Rome
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But soon condemned Swedish king as more interested in land than religion
She fell out of favor at court: many of her visions were apocalyptic
 The Virgin Mary appeared often in these
She reported her visions to various confessors: they wrote them in Latin
Jubilee indulgence, papal approval for Bridgettines, persuade pope to return
She found Rome in virtual ruins: divided by rival factions
Series of angelic visions: wrote her famous Sermo Angelicus
 Focus on Mary: vision of her soul rising to heaven (Assumption?)
She also visited various monasteries in Italy: challenged them to reform
1367: Pope Urban V returned to Rome, but this didn’t last long
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Bridget had vision: warned of pope’s immanent death
She got him to approve her rule, but he returned to Avignon & died (1370)
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1371: Bridget wrote several times to Pope Gregory X
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A vision directed her to pilgrimage to the Holy Land
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She set out with daughter (Catherine), two sons, and followers
Son Charles died in Naples after scandalous affair with Queen Joanna
In Holy Land Bridget has series of visions of biblical events
1373: she returned to Rome seriously ill
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He ignored her pleas: but eventually listened to Catherine of Siena (1377)
Bridget lost popularity in Rome: strong prophecies against the people
Died on July 23, 1373: remains were moved to abbey of Vadstena, Sweden
She was canonized in 1391: patroness of Sweden
After her death the Bridgettines split into three branches
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Netherlands, Germany, England
Spanish branch in Spain and Mexico
Sweden, Italy, India, and USA: focus on charitable work
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Catherine of Siena, virgin & doctor: 1347-1380 (April 29)
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Born Caterina di Benincasa in Siena, Italy in 1347
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Became a Dominican tertiary at age 16: most were older
widows
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24th of 25 children of middle class family: her twin sister died at birth
At age 6 she had a vision of Jesus: early commitment to life of
virginity, prayer, solitude
 Her parents pushed her to marry: she refused, began practice of
fasting
Lived at home in solitude and prayer: cared for poor and ill
sought reform of clergy, studied much
At 21 she experienced what she called “mystical marriage” with Christ
1368: she dedicated herself to a more active life
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Had a strong sense of society as a community held together by charity
Began ministry of preaching (unusual for a woman): people flocked
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Constant theme of her message was God’s passionate love for us
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1374: she visited Dominican friary in Florence and sought reform
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We must respond by loving God and all of God’s children
She began to see that her love for God and the Church must lead to reform
Traveled in northern Italy trying to prevent formation of anti-papal league
 Preached value of a crusade against the Turks: divert violence out
At Pisa she received the gift of the stigmata: identified with suffering Christ
Wrote to Pope Gregory XI to push reform of the clergy
 “Many layfolk put them to shame by their good holy lives”
1376: she visited Avignon as ambassador of Florence
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Pope Gregory XI had placed the city under interdict
Extensive correspondence with Gregory XI to return to Rome
 Combined tender familiarity (called him Babbo) and honest challenge
 “Be a courageous man for me, not a coward!”
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1377: Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome
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1378: outbreak of the Great Western Schism
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She returned to Siena and founded a convent
She began work on her famous Diualogue: based on her mystical experience
Catherine was almost killed by anti-papal party in Rome
During the Schism she rallied to the cause of pope Urban VI (who had
been questionably deposed)
 Offered her preaching, but also her prayers, sufferings, and penance
 She worked to have a council convoked to heal the Schism
She died in 1380 of a stroke at age 33
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Result of her severe penances and taking the sins of the Church upon her