IMPACT OF AGENT CUM FEDERATION MODEL IN
INANCIAL INCLUSION: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE
Dr. Veerashekharappa1
1.1.
Introduction
A large segment of the population, especially the poor, are still excluded from
formal banking services, which has led to income inequity (Baldacci et al 2002), a
number of studies support that the poor need financial services to help them manage
their lives (Morduch and Rutherford 2003). Considering this various countries have
designed financial inclusion programme with suitable legislature and delivery
models2.
In India too since independence enormous efforts were made to provide formal
credit access to the neglected sectors and the poor. In fact, the state adopted
repression approach (state intervention) since nationalization (1969) in expansion of
bank branches and preferential lending to priority sectors and venerable sections. .
This has contributed to increased density of branches across area and population.
However, with the introduction of reforms in banking sector led to dilution of
preferential lending to the poor. The banks concentrated more on efficiency and
profitability. As result, the number of metropolitan went 93 per cent against rural
branches 12 per cent (Sameer Kochar,2013) during 2004 to 2013. This is enough to
derive the negative approach towards rural and poor.
Nevertheless, the Government of India in its Union Budget 2005-06, requested
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to examine the issue of allowing banks to adopt the
agency model to facilitate access formal credit to the poor.
The RBI constituted an
Internal Group to examine Issues Relating to Rural Credit and Micro Finance
(Chaired by Sri. H.R. Khan, 2005). The group recommended agent models; viz, the
Business Facilitator (BF) and the Business Correspondent (BC). Under the BC
1
Associate Professor and Head, CESP, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Nagarbhavi, Bangalore-72.
United States, the Community reinvestment Act (1997), in France, the law on exclusion (1998), Germany
introducing voluntary code (1996) and South Africa launched a low cost account (2004).
2
1
Model, institutional agents/other external entities may support the banks for
extending financial service3 to the poor.
Based on recommendation almost all the banks appointed agents (means BCs)
to reach out to the poor and excluded community.
However, the agents are
heterogeneous in their function, operation and in adopting technology to reach out to
the clients.
Some of them adopted federation approach, due to their earlier
experience in microfinance. The federations are self financed through user charges
and meets establishment expenditures, etc. However, it is subject to criticism for
long term sustainability of these federations. In this context it is planned to make a
study with the following objectives:
1. Objective and methodology
1. The impact of the overall financial inclusion program in the state due to
Agent model.
2. Examine structure and operation of federation, its viability in self
sufficiency.
2. Sources of data
Secondary sources such as RBI, NABARD publications, state of the sectors
reports and the studies carried out by institutions and individuals are largely
depended upon for the information and data. The primary data has been collected
from the groups and members involved in management.
The programme was
implemented in Kunigal taluk which has six hoblis comprising 36 Gram Panchayats
(GP). To understand the financial inclusion and the federation structure, 33 JLGs and
23 SHGs were randomly selected. In order to have complete representation, in the
first stage, from each Hobli two Gram Panchayats (GP) were selected randomly. For
second stage, groups were classified into different strata based on the year of
formation (see table 10). Further, groups were randomly selected from each stratum
to have representation from each year of formation. The number of SHGs and JLGs
chosen from each GP depended on the number of groups that existed in the
particular GP.
3
The BCs would function as ‘pass through’ agencies to provide credit related services such as disbursal of small
value credit, recovery of principle, collection of interest and sale of micro finance/ mutual fund products/
pension products besides the other function of BF Model.
2
This study examines both the agent model as well as federations
structure.
The presentation is structured into five sectors, section two provides
progress of agent model, section three documents status of agent model in
Karnataka, sector four presents’ federations function, operation, last sector derives
conclusions from earlier sections.
Section 2
Progress of Agent Model
2.1. Status of Agent Model
In India, various outreach activities have been implemented since
reforms, such as: no-frill accounts, SHG-BL programme and agent model to include
poor in formal institutional credit programme.
The agent model is two types,
Business Correspondents (BC) and Business Facilitators (BF).
While BCs are
permitted to carry out transactions on behalf of the bank as agents, BF’s refer clients,
pursue the client’s proposal and facilitate the banks to carry out its transactions.
These agents are allowed to have their own strategy in adopting suitable new
technologies into banking transactions.
The banks including those in private sector have appointed agents (BCs), the
total number of agents appointed touched to 96,000 in 2012; similarly ICT A/Cs
handled by these agents reached to 153 million, thus, touching a total transaction of
Rs 97 billion in 2012 (Table-1). The agents are getting service charges, which is their
revenue4. The appointment in this model rapidly increasing every year, for instance
during 2010, the total strength was around 33 thousand, by 2012 it has gone up to
97 thousand. And the villages covered by this model are 1.20 laths. The other
models, such as no frill accounts, SHG - BL GCC and KCC not matching to this
growth.
4
The BCs would function as ‘pass through’ agencies to provide credit related services such as disbursal of small value credit, recovery of
principle, collection of interest and sale of micro finance/ mutual fund products/ pension products besides the other function of BF Model.
3
S No.
1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12
13
Table 1: Progress of Financial Inclusion in India
Particulars
March 2010 March 2011
2
3
4
BCs and CSPs deployed
33,042
58,361
Villages covered through the Branches
21,499
22,684
Villagers covered through the BCs
33,158
76,801
Villages covered through other modes
100
355
Total Villages covered
54,757
99,840
No Frills A/Cs (no. in millions)
49.55
74.39
No Frills A/Cs savings (no. in Rs. billion)
48.55
65.65
KCCs (no. in millions)
24
27
KCC- Credit (Rs. billions)
1,240
1,600
GCCs (no. in millions)
1
2
GCC- Credit (Rs. billions)
35
35
ICT A/Cs- BC Total transactions (no. in 27
84
ICT
A/CsBC
Total
transactions
(Rs.
billions)
7
58
millions)
March 2012
5
96,828
24,701
1,20,355
2,478
1,47,534
103.21
30
2,068
2
42
156
97
Source: Microfinance: India State of the Sector report 2012, Report on Trend and Progress of Banking
in India- 2012-13
Section 3
Agent Model in Karnataka
3.1. Introduction
Karnataka state well known in the expansion of banking intuitions, similarly it has
contributed in promoting financial inclusion programme. According to the Report by
Crisil called Inclusix Index (2012), this state ranks ninth with a score of 61.4 among
all the 35 States and Union Territories, which is above all-India at 42.8. The major
parameters considered for this rating are bank branch, deposit and credit
penetration. Further, as per 2013 Debt and Investment Survey, 73.11 per cent of
rural and 82.77 per cent of urban households having Bank accounts respectively
(Annexure 1). The number of rural households having access to credit was also quite
high i.e., 67.1 per cent. 49.6 per cent of households had an access to credit from
formal institutional agency. However, this access is biased towards other backward
class i.e., mostly dominant caste like vokkaliga and Lingayats (Table 2). Only 44 per
cent of ST households and 45 per cent of SC households had an access to formal
institutional credit. On the other hand nearly half of households belonging to other
backward class had an access to formal institutional credit. However, incidence of
indebtedness was also quite high i.e., 46.4 per cent, which ranks five among the
states (Annexure 1).
4
Table 2: Distribution of credit access from inst and non inst.
Agency from where Loan taken in Karnataka 2012
Area Institution Non-inScheduled Tribe
Rural 44.51
al Agency 55.49
InInstitut
Urban 47.03
52.97
ionsInsti
Total 45.06
54.94
tutional
Scheduled caste
Rural 44.20
55.80
Agency
Urban 45.70
54.30
Total 44.53
55.47
Other Backward Class Rural 49.01
50.99
Urban 51.72
48.28
Total 49.78
50.22
Others
Rural 51.84
48.16
Urban 67.36
32.64
Total 58.06
41.94
Total
Rural 48.29
51.71
Urban 55.34
44.66
Total 50.35
49.65
Source: NSS 70th round AIDIS, 2013
The reasons attributed for more banks accounts are branch expansion as
well as out reaching activities. In the state presently 8,430 bank branches, of which
80 per cent are commercial banks and 20 per cent regional rural banks. Due to high
density of the bank branches, the population and area per branch is less compared
to other states.
Table 3: Distribution of Bank Branches across various areas over Years in
Percentage
S
Branch
2009
2010
2011
1 2
3
4
5
No 1. Network
Rural
39.2
38.7
38.7
2. Semi Urban
21.3
20.18
20.6
3. Urban
19.3
21.1
21.0
4. Metro/PT
20.2
19.3
19.6
5. Total Branches
100
100
100
Source: Economic Survey Report, Karnataka 2012 to 2013
(5628)
(7064)
(7393)
2012
6
38.7
21.1
20.9
19.2
100
2013
7
39.0
21.6
20.1
19.1
100
(7885)
(8430)
Agents were appointed in almost all the banks, the total number of agents are 8077.
The agents are paid Rs 1500 to 3000 /-plus conveyance up tot Rs 600 per month.
Further, Rs 10, 000 in the form of overdraft. But, with discussions NABARD and
SLBC officials reveal that it is cumulative figures are misleading as many CSP have
closed down and number of BC withdrawn is not mentioned. The NGOs, who have
establishments, are combining this opportunity with their developmental work.
5
Table 4: Financial Inclusion in Karnataka
S
Particulars
1
No. 2
1. No. of Business Correspondents( BCs) / Business
2. No.
of villages
population less than 2,000 identified for
facilitators
(BFs)with
Appointed
3. Out
of this,
No. of villages covered under Financial Inclusion
Financial
Inclusion
4. Total
so far No. of villages covered under ICT (Information and
5. Cumulative
No. of
Basic Savings
Deposit
Accounts
opened
Communication
Technology)
based
Financial
Inclusion
(FI)
6. No.
of overdrafts
(in
lakhs)
or other
modes in basic savings deposit accounts (in lakhs)
7. No. of general purpose credit cards (GCCs) issued (in lakhs)
8. No. of Kisan credit cards (KCCs) issued (in lakhs)
9. No. of smart cards issued (in lakhs)
10. No. of smart cards transactions (in lakhs)
11. No. of financial literacy centers (FLCs) established
12. No. of RSETIs established
Source: SLBC, Karnataka 2013
As on
3
December
8,077
2013
23,126
10,850
13,611
107.86
10.75
3.67
21.16
18.96
81.75
102
33
Section 4
Community Based Organisation
4.1. Introduction
In Karnataka, there are eight Community Based Organisations (CBOs) are
functioning with membership of 0.2 million poor households. The CBOs try to be
autonomous, self sustaining, to organise the poor to come out of poverty through
various services facilitated by Organisations. They do involve in making grass roots
democracy robust and make governmental, bank and corporate, civil society
services effective.
Similarly, the Initiative for Development Foundation(IDF)has promoted five
Community based organisations (CBOs), functioning at Tumkur, Haveri, Dharwad,
Gadag and Belgaum distracts. The IDF is functioning as Business Correspondent
(BC) attached to State Bank of India, Kunigal, in addition to their developmental
work. Under federation the services are provided along with financial inclusion
livelihood programmes.
The financial inclusion services are accessed from SBI,
through the BC activity. The organisation functions on basic principles such as
participation, accountability and transparency. The basic delivery objective is equity,
efficiency and sustainability. The resources identified were finance, human resources
6
and organisational structure. The social capital is the base for providing above
services.
4.2: Rotation of Leadership
It is generally observed that smooth functioning of any organization depends on
participation of everyone, transparency of activities and accountability. The
representative in the group is rotated to provide everyone opportunity to act as
representative. Such change is also necessary to provide an opportunity to other
members of the group to acquaint themselves with leadership skills, which will avoid
the dominance and vested interest of few people. However, the gathered data and
focus group discussion show that only 19 per cent of JLGs and 13 per cent of the
SHGs changed their leaders. In rest of the groups, the same representatives
continued
in position since inception of the group (Table 5). Some members were
found to avoid leadership as they felt that it might involve lot of responsibility for
which they were not prepared.
Table 5 Rotation of Representatives (in per cent)
Sl. No.
Particulars
JLG
SHG
Total
1.
Rotated
19
13
16
2.
Not Rotated
81
87
84
3.
Total
100 (33)
100 (23)
100 (56)
Note: The values in the parentheses are the total number of groups interviewed.
4.3: Governance of Groups
Participation in the meetings by everyone helps in improving efficiency in delivery
of services. The number of meetings held in a month, percentage of attendance and
percentage of members participating in the discussion indicate whether the groups
have been functioning well or not.. Ideally, meetings should be held once a week to
facilitate regular interactions among the members, to forge a stronger connection
among them.
Fifty two per cent of JLGs and 57 per cent of SHGs held their meetings once a
month and this was mainly due to a policy change that the Federation was trying to
implement. However, majority of the groups were not happy with this change and
wanted to stick to the earlier routine of having weekly meetings. In majority of the
7
cases, all the members attended the meetings but, attendance among SHGs was
higher. Even when it comes to interaction in the meetings, all the women in the
SHGs actively participated, whereas only 89 per cent of JLG members participated
actively during group meetings. Books are maintained well and updated soon after
the meeting in most of the groups. In case the group’s representative finds it difficult
to write the books, he/she is assisted by Federation’s representative. Books are
maintained by the first representative and/or the second representative in the case of
JLGs whereas, 26 per cent of SHG groups seek the help from the others. In some
cases, non-members assist the SHG members in recording their activities and are
paid some nominal fees for writing and maintaining the records..
4.4 : Banking Knowledge: Pattern of Savings and Advances
Savings and lending are an integral part of the group activities and they help the
group members not only to have savings to their credit but also have an access to
the saved money in case of an emergency. Basic principle of formation of groups is
that even very poor individual can save small amount and this forms an additional
incentive to access the bank and get bank loan at relatively low interest rate.
Otherwise, they were not eligible for availing banking facilities. This not only
strengthens the habit of saving, but also enables them to have reasonably good
amount in the group through the saving which further could be used for internal
lending.
In the sample groups, savings ranged between Rs. 40 per month and Rs. 200 per
month, but on an average majority of the groups saved around Rs. 100 per month.
Nearly 50 per cent of the groups increased the saving amount once since inception
(Figure 8). About 25 per cent of JLGs and 40 per cent of SHGs increased the
amount by Rs. 20.
8
Figure 1: Changes in Savings Pattern since Inception
Change in the Saving Pattern since inception
60
50.0
50
43.5
39.1
Percentage of groups
40
30
25.0
20
9.4 8.7
10
9.4
4.3
3.1 4.3
3.1
0
0
10
20
30
Increase in monthly savings(in Rs.)
JLG
40
50
SHG
On an average, per person saving was around Rs. 2,000 for those belonging to
SHGs and 2,500 for members belonging to JLGs. Total group saving in JLGs ranged
from Rs. 6000 to Rs. 98,000, with the average being around Rs. 33,000 (Annexure
9). SHG groups also had savings ranging from Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 46,000 with the
average being Rs. 27,000. This total group saving is sum of the saving and interest
earned from the internal lending
In the sample groups, 91 per cent of the member’s availed internal loan and only
9 per cent had not done so. This internal loan acted as a good source of access to
money at times of emergencies at interest rates lower than the money lender.
Majority of the time the members have used it for healthcare, conducting
ceremonies, paying up the education fees of their children, etc. Many also mentioned
that they used it for procuring inputs like seeds, fertilizer, renting tools for farm
activities. The loan amount ranged from as small as a sum of Rs. 500 to Rs. 5,500.
In most of the cases the repayment was punctual.
4.5: Repayment of Loans
Sustainability of the group also depends on timely repayment of bank loans.
JLGs were not only getting the loan at lower interest rate i.e., seven per cent per
annum, they would also get a subsidy of three per cent if the repayment was well
before the stipulated time i.e., 12 months. This prompted many groups to make the
payment in time. In the sample data, it was found that 27 per cent of the groups
repaid the loans within the stipulated period of 12 months. In 41 per cent of the
groups, the repayment was with a delay of just two months.
9
4.6: Organizational Aspects of the Groups
4.6.1: Homogeneity of Groups
Sustainability of the group also depends on the organizational sustainability and
adequate support received from CBO (It is interdependent). Organizational
sustainability can be usually achieved if the members within a group come from
similar socio-economic background.
Land possessed by the member acts as an indicator of economic class to which
they belong. It was found that only 12 per cent of members among JLGs and 30 per
cent among SHGs were homogeneous. Another 27 per cent of the groups among
JLG and 4 per cent among SHG were heterogeneous in nature in terms of the land
holdings. Rest of the groups were mildly homogenous or mildly heterogeneous.
Thus, data highlights the fact that groups include members of various economic
strata.
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
Table 6 : Homogeneity of groups-economic class (in per cent)
Index of diversity value range
JLG
SHG
0 (Homogenous groups)
12
30
0.01 to 0.25 (Mildly homogenous)
9
9
0.25 to 0.50 (Mildly heterogeneous)
52
57
>0.50 (Heterogeneous groups)
27
4
Total
100 (33)
100 (23)
Note: The values in the parentheses are the total number of groups interviewed.
4.6.3: Occupation of the Groups
Even though the groups were mildly to severely heterogeneous with respect to land
holding, as far as the occupation of the group members is concerned, nearly 50 per
cent of the gro0ups were found to be mildly homogenous.
Table 8: Homogeneity of groups-Occupation (in per cent)
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
Index of diversity value range
0 (Homogenous groups)
0.01 to 0.25 (Mildly homogenous)
0.25 to 0.50 (Mildly heterogeneous)
>0.50 (Heterogeneous groups)
Total
JLG
33
12
55
0
100 (33)
SHG
30
22
48
0
100 (23)
Note: The values in the parentheses are the total number of groups interviewed.
10
4.7. Sustenance of CBO/Federation
The second issue for consideration relates to the sustenance of Federation without
much external funding. In order to estimate the amount of fee that may be collected
from the groups, one has to consider the number of groups that will be linked with
the bank. By considering the total number of groups existing, formed at different
points in time, and the share of groups that were linked at each stage from the
sample information (Tables9-10) and average time taken to avail the next linkage,
the anticipated number of groups that will be linked in year 2013-14 can be
calculated.
Table 9: Percentage of JLG Groups Obtaining Bank Linkages
Sl. JLG groups formation year
1
2009-10
No.
2
2010-11
3
2011-12
4
2012-13
First
100
linkage
100
100
from start
50
First to
100
second
100
83
link
-
Second
67
to
15 third
link
-
Third to
17
fourth
link
-
Table10: Percentage of SHG groups Obtaining Bank Linkages
Sl. SHG groups formation year
1
2009-10
No.
2
2010-11
3
2011-12
4
2012-13
First
100
linkage
100
100
from start
50
First to
100
second
57
link
-
Second
Third to
29
to
third fourth
link
link
-
Note: Blank cells depict that none of the groups have been linked in that particular
year.
One can ascertain from the above tables that all the groups formed during
2009-10 have been linked for the second time. For JLG groups, this is true also for
the groups formed in 2010-11. Only 67 per cent of the groups formed in 2009-10
have received third linkage and only 17 per cent have progressed to the fourth. The
drop in the percentage of groups being linked after second linkage is because
certain groups are yet to pay the remaining instalments. In addition, some groups
have applied for new loans but are yet to get sanction.
Though the renewal of loans is relatively easier in the case of SHGs, only 29 per
cent of the groups formed in 2009-10 have progressed towards third linkage. This is
11
because the SHGs have two years time to repay their loan. None of the groups
formed after 2009-10 have been linked for the fourth time.
Table 11: Number of groups- linked
Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
Linkages
First linkage
Second Linkage
Third Linkage
Fourth Linkage
Total
JLG
102
150
248
46
546
SHG
71
123
85
60
339
Total
173
273
333
106
885
It is estimated that around 546 JLGs and 339 SHGs will be linked in the year 201314. Taking an average amount of Rs. 50,000 for each member in JLG group for 2 nd,
3rd and 4th linkage and Rs. 40,000 per member for 1 st linkage (similar amount for
SHG are Rs. 25,000 and Rs. 10,000 respectively) and with an average of 15
members per group, it turned out that JLGs would be linked with the amount of Rs.
39 crore and SHGs with Rs. 11 crore totalling to 50 crore (Table 11) in 2013-14.
Table 12: Total Credit estimated Across Linkages (in INR crores)
Sl.
1
No.
2
3
4
Linkages
First linkage
Second Linkage
Third Linkage
Fourth Linkage
Total
JLG
6.14
11.22
18.61
3.45
39.42
SHG
1.06
4.6
3.18
2.23
11.07
Total
7.2
15.82
21.79
5.68
50.49
Thus, the federation fees charged at two per cent of the credit amount (Rs. 50.49
crore) would yield Rs. 1 crore approximately. As per the audited accounts of Kunigal
Federation for the year 2012-13, the expenditure is Rs 55.6 lakhs (Annexure 2).
Accounting for 10 per cent inflation, the expenditure of the CBO would be 61 lakhs.
This however does not include the
-
salaries of operators and maintenance of CSCs,
-
salaries of six block officers, three specialist officers, administration and
accounts personnel of IDF Kunigal office,
-
maintenance of Kunigal office
As per the Estimated Income and Expenditure statement of the Kunigal Federation,
the salaries and remuneration to the above mentioned personnel amounts to Rs. 31
lakhs. Accounting for all the above expenditure (totalling to Rs. 92 lakhs), CBO
Kunigal can sustain financially from its federation fees. It is necessary that SBI must
12
also support by way of well-structured commission system covering all the finance
related activities like disbursement, recovery etc.
5. Concluding observation
The agent model has made inroads into the banking sector to access of the
bank credit to the poor, but data lacks on their sustainability. Our observation brings
out that still the federation has to strengthen required management skills to handle
all the banking aspects of credit linkages and disbursements by it. Further, most of
the group members do not have clarity on the fee structure towards the services
provided by the Federation, on issues related to sustainability of the Federation and
regarding interest rate pattern and processing charges levied by the bank. It would
be in the interest of the organization to provide a chart or a diagrammatic explanation
to assist the members in understanding the fees and interest pattern. An
organization is as strong as its people. Hence, there is need to further upgrade the
skills of field staff and other officials. The staff turnover should be minimized and it is
important to take efforts to retain efficient and experienced staff.
The overall impact of this federation is positive. It has been capable of
bringing large section of the financially excluded under the purview of formal finance.
Further, it has imparted sustainable agricultural techniques to its JLG members. It
also has increased the self confidence and decision making ability of its SHG
members and brought in a sense of belongingness among all its members. Thus,
this model can be replicated provided, the errors and short comings of current
programme are corrected and requirements of the new region are considered.
13
Annexure Table 1
State wise Number of Households having Bank Account (Urban and Rural) and
Access to Credit and Incidence of Indebtedness(IOI) in Rural India, 2012
Incidence of Incidence of
Bank Account borrowing
indebtedness
Rural Urban Rural Rank Rural Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.
JAMMU & KASHMIR 86.80 75.47
24.25 25
12.67 24
2.
HIMACHAL
95.05 89.93
32.95 20
25.95 13
3.
PUNJAB
78.10 78.35
51.06 8
33.06 8
PRADESH
4.
CHANDIGARH
90.66 96.68
5.45
36
3.84
33
5.
UTTARAKHAND
79.39 83.44
39.29 15
25.83 14
6.
HARYANA
84.26 73.10
35.71 17
23.93 17
7.
DELHI
93.97 83.16
6.57
35
3.28
34
8.
RAJASTHAN
77.32 73.88
58.96 6
37.39 7
9.
UTTAR PRADESH
77.90 75.98
42.71 13
29.55 10
10.
BIHAR
42.11 65.40
46.96 9
29.08 11
11.
SIKKIM
86.52 80.16
9.16
31
7.06
29
12.
ARUNACHAL
55.33 86.26
15.82 28
5.15
31
13.
NAGALAND
71.88 83.20
8.62
32
1.51
36
PRADESH
14.
MANIPUR
44.22 61.78
29.16 21
9.88
27
15.
MIZORAM
38.57 75.49
9.76
30
5.32
30
16.
TRIPURA
92.93 88.16
27.84 22
10.03 26
17.
MEGHALAYA
65.10 89.51
6.69
34
2.53
35
18.
ASSAM
58.59 78.94
25.93 23
10.07 25
19.
WEST BENGAL
53.62 73.91
43.19 12
23.62 18
20.
JHARKHAND
49.75 72.82
34.12 18
18.49 19
21.
ODISHA
59.48 74.43
43.42 11
25.73 15
22.
CHHATTISGARH
60.62 63.89
34.00 19
13.90 23
23.
MADHYA PRADESH 61.15 77.73
42.11 14
24.70 16
24.
GUJARAT
76.55 78.49
38.54 16
25.96 12
25.
DAMAN & DIU
80.27 60.28
24.66 24
16.71 22
26.
D & N HAVELI
73.23 88.82
7.59
33
4.82
32
27.
MAHARASHTRA
76.28 87.67
44.35 10
31.29 9
28.
ANDHRA PRADESH 75.12 81.82
76.44 2
54.06 2
29.
KARNATAKA
73.11 82.77
67.10 5
46.43 4
30.
GOA
92.24 94.08
19.49 27
16.98 21
31.
LAKSHADWEEP
99.43 95.61
12.25 29
7.68
28
32.
KERALA
89.82 90.57
72.59 3
49.50 3
33.
TAMIL NADU
77.05 79.41
67.89 4
39.68 6
34.
PUDUCHERRY
95.34 88.27
56.17 7
40.91 5
35.
A & N ISLANDS
95.61 90.92
23.21 26
17.72 20
36.
TELENGANA
73.69 82.34
76.75 1
59.06 1
37.
ALL INDIA
68.81 79.52
49.00
31.44
th
Source: NSS 70 round AIDIS, 2013
14
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Opportunities Inclusion, Social Policy Aspects of migration, Streamlining of Social
Policies.
Mor Nachiket and Bindu Ananth (2007). “Inclusive Financial Systems: Some Design
Principles and a Case Study”, Economic and Political Weekly, March, Vol. XLII (13)
pp 1121-1126
Morduch, J. & Rutherford, S. 2003. Microfinance: Analytical Issues for India.
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