CRIM 430: CJ Research
Lecture 1
Ways of Knowing
Tradition—information conveyed through
culture, history…cumulative
Authority—information conveyed by someone
with credibility (e.g., expert) on the topic
Observation—Information based on logical
and empirical (data) support
The credibility of tradition, authority, and
observation requires that the information
derived from them “fits” with experience
Advancement of Knowledge
Experiential Reality (ER)=Believe it because we
experience it
Agreement Reality (AR)=Believe it because we’re told
and everyone seems to agree (it’s logical)
AR MATCHES ER  Information Accepted
AR DOES NOT MATCH ER  Information Rejected
Advancement of knowledge and understanding
requires an interplay of all the ways of knowing
Putting it All Together—The Basis of
Science
Tradition/Authority Information
Extent to Which Info. Is Logical & Plausible
(Agreement Reality)
Extent to Which Info. “Fits” with Experience
(Experiential Reality)
Defining the Scientific Method
Scientific Method=Production of knowledge
through objective observation and analysis
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Identifies regularities and patterns between
phenomenon
Requires adherence to rules and specific
procedures to increase accuracy and objectivity
and to reduce bias and inaccuracy
Caution: Science protects and increases the
integrity of information but it does not
guarantee it.
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Knowledge evolves based on what information is
available to us at any given time
Human behavior is complex and all influences
cannot be accounted for in social sciences
How Does Science Improve
Knowledge?
Without Science
With Science
Inaccurate Observation—Record/recall
observations incorrectly
Structured observation & recording
methods
Overgeneralization—Using a few events
to identify a general pattern
Rules & standards for sample size
representativenes, & replication
Selective Observation—Pay attention to
only those events that reinforce
perceived pattern
Rules & standards for sample size
representativenes, & replication
Illogical Reasoning—Focusing on
implausible ideas or exceptions to the
rule
Use of logic & peer review
Ideology & Politics—Personal opinions
and viewpoints influence interpretation
of facts
Rules & standards increases objectivity
“To Err is Human”—Sometimes we are
just wrong
Built-In Precautions to avoid error
What is the Research Process?
The research process refers to the application
of the rules and procedures of science to
understand a phenomenon (e.g., crime)
The research process is a never-ending
enterprise…constantly revising itself to further
advance knowledge—it is spiral rather than
circular
Goal of the research process=To continuously
improve measurement of observations in
order to estimate reality as accurately as
possible.
Basic Elements of the Research
Process
Paradigm/Ideology/Theory
Research question
Identifying the independent and dependent variables implied in
the research question
Identifying an appropriate research design
Identifying an appropriate sample
Identifying measures for study variables
Identifying an appropriate method of data collection
Data Collection
Data Analysis to Produce Results
Implications of Results on Research Question
The Research Process
Paradigm/
Ideology/
Theory
Revise or
Advance
Current
Knowledge &
Beliefs
Research
Question
ID
Independent
& Dependent
Variables
ID Research
Design&
Sample
ID Measures
for the
Variables
ID Method
for Collecting
Data
Collect
Data
Analyze Data
and Produce
Results
Confirm or
Refute
Research
Question
Application of
Results
Paradigm
A way of thinking about and viewing the world
Paradigms structures our understanding of
phenomenon
Paradigm shift occurs when one view or
interpretation replaces another—example for crime
 Spiritual explanationsFree WillDeterminism
Different paradigms can coexist depending on the
assumptions of the paradigm
 RetributionRehabilitationIncapacitationMix
Research produces information that either confirms,
questions, or refutes a paradigm
Theory
A specific framework developed within a
paradigm to understand a phenomenon
The purpose of a theory is:

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To understand
To explain
To predict
Proposes/predicts relationships between the
cause and the effect: XY
Proposed relationship(s) create the basis for
testable predictions or research questions
Basic Components of a Theory
Concepts
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Conceptualization=applying words to a mental
image; it is the process used to specify what we
mean with the use of specific terms
Creates concepts=words or symbols used to
convey meaning and relationships
Concepts can be interpreted in many ways
Concepts are measurable in this form—requires a
process of operationalization or turning concepts
into variables
Components of a Theory, Cont’d.
Research Question
 A specific question about the relationship between
two or more factors (or variables) proposed in a
theory
 A research question is the foundation of the
research study. Everything revolves around it
Hypotheses
 Measurable statements that represents the
predicted relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variable
 More specific statement that offers a prediction to
the research question
Purpose of a Theory
To establish a causal relationship between
two or more variables
Criteria for determining causation
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CORRELATION: The variables must be statistically
correlated
TEMPORAL ORDERING: The independent variable
must precede the dependent variable
NON-SPURIOUS: The relationship cannot be due
to (1) coincidence or (2) a third variable not
accounted for
Approaches to the Research
Process
Inductive Method
1.
2.
Make observations
Using the observations, develop a theory or
prediction for future observations
Deductive Method
1.
2.
Develop theory and prediction (I.e., hypothesis)
Use observations to confirm or refute the
prediction
Both methods are essential to research
The methods are complement each other
rather than compete with one another—Two
sides of the same coin
Inductive v. Deductive
Methods
Inductive Method
Research Question
Observations
Evaluate Question
& Develop Theory
Deductive Method
Theory
Hypothesis
Observations
Confirm, Refute &
Revise Theory
Both Methods are Related &
Critical to the Research Process
Inductive
Research
Theory
Deductive
Research
Types of Research
Qualitative Research=Use of description via
verbal information to develop themes and
patterns related to a research question
 Suited better for inductive research
 Provides advantages for exploratory
research and the basis for developing a
theory (“grounded theory”)
 Less suited for theory testing
Types of Research, Cont’d.
Quantitative Research=Use of description via
numerical manipulations to identify patterns
and relationships related to a research
question
 Suited better for deductive research
 Necessary for theory testing
 Can be used for explorative research but is
more limited
Standards Related to Research
Causal Reasoning: Standard requires
complete confidence that the independent
variable always results in the dependent
variable

Difficult to find such a relationship in the social
sciences
Probabilistic Reasoning: The effects occur
more often when the causes occur than when
the causes are absent
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More likely to occur in the social sciences