Sustainable Water
Management in
Rural Areas
G.M.ZUPPI
Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali
Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia
A new concept in environmental and human
affairs was introduced with the Brundtland
Declaration of 1987: "Sustainable
development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs." Implicit in this oftenquoted definition is the idea that the natural
environment faces stress and
overexploitation and will not be able to
indefinitely meet escalating human
demands.
Source: www.csa.com/discoveryguides/sustain/overview.php
ECOLOGICAL CATASTROPHE AT THE END OF THE 20TH CENTURY
If people did not engage in food production (cattle-breeding,
agriculture, fishery, etc.) but only collected nature's products like
our ancestors hunters and gatherers, the entire planet would hardly
bear several tens of million people without any consequences for the
environment. Source: public.globalnet.hr/~gvlahovi/ekologija/ecological-catastrophe.htm
Uses freshwater in various
parts of the world.
Agricultural production
accounts for an average of
69 percent of freshwater
use worldwide; industry
uses 23 percent and
households eight percent.
The dependence of our
food production systems
on irrigation links
freshwater with food
security, and therefore
with human nutrition and
well-being.
Source: www.aaas.org/international/ehn/waterpop/desherb.htm
Global water
consumption rose sixfold
between 1900 and 1995 more than double the
rate of population
growth - and goes on
growing as farming,
industry and domestic
demand all increase.
Source: news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3747724.stm
Seventy percent of the water used worldwide
is used for agriculture.
Source: ttp://whyfiles.org/131fresh_water/2.html
Much more will be needed if we are to feed the world's
growing population - predicted to rise from about six
billion today to 8.9 billion by 2050.
And consumption will soar further as more people expect
Western-style lifestyles and diets - one kilogram of grainfed beef needs at least 15 cubic meters of water, while a
kilo of cereals needs only up to three cubic meters.
Source: news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3747724.stm
Source: ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwdecline.html
Sustainable yield is a socio-economic term, not a scientific term.
Sustainable yield is usually considered to be that rate of pumping
from wells for which the impact is acceptable; however what
impact is “acceptable” is subjective. There will always be a
hydrologic effect of pumping from wells. In this sense, there is no
such thing as “safe yield”.
Source: wi.water.usgs.gov/glpf/cn_pmp_src.html
Over-exploitation Effects
•Ground Subsidence
• Groundwater Quality
• Saltwater Intrusion
• River-Aquifer Interactions
• Wetlands
Overexploitation occurs as far as groundwater
abstraction exceeds available groundwater
recharge from precipitation or surface water
contribution. In such a case one aquifer or the
aquifer system undergo pressure reduction
changing the effective stresses in aquifers (grain
to grain stress) and initiating subsidence in fine
grained, unconsolidated silt and clay aquifers
(Magara 1978). This may endanger constructions
(e.g. Mexico City), move coast lines (e.g.
Maracaibo Lake, Venezuela) and change even the
surface drainage system of catchment areas
(Leipzig area, Germany).
Source: MAN'S IMPACT ON GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS IAEA, Vienna, VOLUME V
Increase of effective stresses in unconsolidated aquifers
due to lowering the hydraulic head.
Source: MAN'S IMPACT ON GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS IAEA, Vienna, VOLUME V
Subsidence of sediments reduces the storage
capacity of aquifers. If overexploitation finishes,
the reduced porosity will mostly not return to initial
conditions, because in unconsolidated rocks plastic
deformations dominate over elastic deformations.
Therefore, groundwater levels rise after finishing
overexploitation often closer to the surface and
changes in coastal lines will never restore to their
original position. Thus in some cases a stop of
overexploitation after a long run of groundwater
mining might even create hygienic and geotechnical
problems.
Source: MAN'S IMPACT ON GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS IAEA, Vienna, VOLUME V
Source : a.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwlandsubsidew.html
Lake Mexico is gone. On its site are several hundred square
kilometers of urban neighborhoods. Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco
are also gone. Only a few canals and small lakes remain. The rest of
the area is covered by streets and buildings.
The three northern lakes have also been drained.
Source: www.salve.it/.../problemi/P-eccezionaliA.htm
Source: www.isodarco.it/.../paper/candriai01camuffo.html
Source: www.john-daly.com/ges/msl-rept.htm
Over-exploitation Effects
•Ground Subsidence
• Groundwater Quality
• Saltwater Intrusion
• River-Aquifer Interactions
• Wetlands
• Groundwater Quality
Wastewater from the three major water use
categories, agriculture, industry, and
domestic use contributes to water pollution.
Agricultural fertilizers and pesticides,
industrial effluents, and household
wastewaters are often discharged with
minimal treatment into surface water, and
sometimes leach into underground aquifers.
The contaminated water can be harmful to
human health, leading to illness and even
death.
Source: www.aaas.org/international/ehn/waterpop/desherb.htm
Source: www.unep.org/.../water/vitalwater/resources.html
Over-exploitation of the
groundwater quickened the
infiltration of surface water so
the groundwater is polluted.
Once it happened it is difficult
to recover. Now the
groundwater resource is
polluted very severely in many
cities. According to the
statistic there are several big
and middle cities whose
groundwater is polluted in
varied degree and the main
pollution source is industry
and living pollution.
Source: Foster et al. 1998
Causes of groundwater contamination:
Animal lots
Source: www.montcalm.org/montcalmmold/planningeduc0020.asp
Over-exploitation Effects
•Ground Subsidence
• Groundwater Quality
• Saltwater Intrusion
• River-Aquifer Interactions
• Wetlands
Sea water intrusion
Source: capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa
Source: www.watersavingtips.org/groundwater.html
Seawater
intrusion is
caused by
decreases in water
levels or by rises
in seawater levels.
When fresh water
is pumped out
rapidly, the
height of the
freshwater in the
aquifer is
lowered, forming
saline wedge
Source: : soundwaves.usgs.gov./2001/03/meetings5.html
Karstification of carbonate rocks in the coastal zones is
about 150 m deeper than the recent sea level and the
underground flow path has been opened for the intrusion
of specific heavier sea water, on some places very deep in
aquifers. Deep karstification is the consequence of the sea
In the land hydraulic system, when the fresh groundwater is
withdrawn by pumping wells at a faster rate than it can be
replenished, a drawdown of the water table occurs with a resulting
decrease in the overall hydrostatic
pressure. When this happens near an ocean coastal area, saltwater
from the ocean intrudes into the freshwater aquifer
Source: www.engr.uconn.edu/~ lanbo/G229Lect111SWIntru.pdf
Source: British Geological Survey. © NERC. UK Groundwater Forum
The position of the interface between the fresh
and saline gw is related to the difference in
density of the two waters.
Source: www.solinst.com/Res/papers/101C4Salt.html
The Ghyben-Herzberg Relation
Under hydrostatic conditions, the weight of a unit
column of fresh water extending from the water table
to the interface is balanced by a unit column of salt
water extending from sea level to the same depth as
the point on the interface.
z = 40h
h
Weight of fresh
water at A= gf(h+z)
Sea
h=constant
z
A
Weight of sea
Fresh water
Salt water
water at A= gs z
The Ghyben-Herzberg analysis assumes
hydrostatic conditions in a homogeneous,
unconfined coastal aquifer. According to this
relation, if the water table in an unconfined
coastal aquifer is lowered by 1 m, the
saltwater interface will rise 40 m.
The salt water rises
10.6 m for every 0,30
m of freshwater
depression and forms a
cone of ascension.
Intrusion can affect the
quality of water not
only at the pumping
well sites, but also at
other well sites, and
undeveloped portions
of the aquifer.
Sources: pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2000/fs-057-00/pdf/fs05700.pdf;
www.lenntech.com/groundwater/seawater-intrusions.htm
Since the early 1960's, the
coastal aquifers of China have
been studied for salt-water
intrusion. With a transition
zone of 1.5 to 6.0 km, and an
aquifer area of more than 580
km2, the increasing extension
of the salt-water intrusion is a
major concern in this area.
Throughout the transition
zone, mixing of local fresh
water, sea water, and cation
exchange can be recognized.
In the City of Laizhou and in
the City of Longkou saltwater intrusion had been
caused by excessive pumping
of the groundwater in these
areas.
Source:
www.solinst.com/Res/papers/101C4Salt.html
In the beginning the
observations were taken
from some specific,
isolated spots (0.5 km2).
Eventually the intrusion
area spread as increases
persisted in agriculture
and industry. intrusion.
In 1979, the salt-water
intrusion area covered 16
km2; 39 km2 in 1982; 71
km2 in 1984; and 196
km2 in 1987. By 1989,
the salt-water intrusion
area became a continuous
zone covering an area of
238 km2 in Laizhou.
Source:
www.solinst.com/Res/papers/101C4Salt.htm
l
In the
1970's, the
salt-water
intrusion
area in the
SW of the
area
increased by
4 km2 each
year. In the
early 1980's,
this number
increased to
11.1 km2,
and after the
mid-1980's
to 30 km2.
Source:
www.solinst.com/Res
/papers/101C4Salt.ht
ml
Over-exploitation Effects
•Ground Subsidence
• Groundwater Quality
• Saltwater Intrusion
• River-Aquifer Interactions
• Wetlands
Source: capp.water.usgs.gov/gwa/ch_f/gif/F030.GIF
Aquifers can exert a strong influence on river flows. In
summer, many rivers are dependent on the groundwater base
flow contribution for their minimum flow. Lower groundwater
levels due to over-exploitation may, therefore, endanger
riverdependent ecological and economic functions, including
surface water abstractions, dilution of effluents, navigation
and hydropower generation.
Source: www.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/freshwater_europe/ecosys.php
Over-exploitation Effects
•Ground Subsidence
• Groundwater Quality
• Saltwater Intrusion
• River-Aquifer Interactions
• Wetlands
Lake Chad: A conspiracy of climate
change and crops
Straddling the borders of Chad, Niger and Cameroon
in West Africa, Lake Chad has been a source of
freshwater for irrigation projects in all these countries.
Maps drawn from a series of satellite images show a
dramatic decrease in the size of the lake over the past
30 years. Since 1963, the lake has shrunk to nearly a
twentieth of its original size, due both to climatic
changes and to high demands for agricultural water.
Since 1963, the surface area of Lake Chad has
decreased from approximately 25 000 km2 to 1 350
km2 (Scientific American, 2001).
Dry spell: Lake Chad photographed in 1972 (left)
and in 1987
Source: img.dailymail.co.uk
Photo W.M.Edmunds
Lake Chad: A conspiracy of climate
change and crops
Lake Chad: A conspiracy of climate change and
crops
Between June 1966 and January 1973, the surface area of
Lake Chad shrunk from 22 772 km2 to 15 400 km2.
•In 1982, the lake's surface area was estimated to be about
2 276 km2 . In February 1994, Meteosat images were used
to measure it at just 1 756 km2 .
•Between 1953 and 1979, irrigation had only a modest
impact on the Lake Chad ecosystem. Between 1983 and
1994, however, irrigation water use increased four-fold.
Source: http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/27.htm
Lake Chad: A conspiracy of climate change and
crops
•About 50% of the decrease in the lake's size since the
1960s is attributed to human water use, with the
remainder attributed to shifting climate patterns.
•Invasive plant species currently cover about 50% of the
remaining surface of Lake Chad.
Source: http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/27.htm
Global climatic change and the Aral Sea basin.
Source .www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/CTW/AralSea.jpeg
Lake Aral: A conspiracy of climate change
and anthropic activities
The Aral Sea Basin is considered a disaster zone. Demands
on the watershed for irrigation and other purposes have
overdrawn water resources. By 1991 almost all river water
was being diverted for irrigation and the sea had lost half
its area. What flowed in was salt-laden, gradually killing
most fish. Wetlands dried up in river deltas. Game, birds,
and other wildlife have become rarer. Windstorms carrying
sand and dried salt into the air have increased in frequency
and severity.
Source: www.gefweb.org
Lake Aral: A conspiracy of climate
change and anthropic activities
The impact on local communities and economies has been severe,
bringing widespread unemployment and poverty as fisheries, game
habitat, pastures, and agricultural land have lost productivity. Public
water supplies have become unreliable and unsafe due to bacterial
contamination. The high incidence of other diseases has led to
speculation on environmental causes. Land upstream of the lake has
been damaged from excess water withdrawals, leading to flooding
and salinization of the land. If trends continue, most agricultural land
in these river basins will be unfit for agriculture within a few
decades.
Source: www.gefweb.org
Large dams are a major part of the waterpopulation equation. Dams are most often
constructed for hydroelectricity, but they are
also used to divert water for irrigation or
domestic water supplies and to control
flooding. Worldwide, there are some 40,000
large dams (those higher than 15 meters),
most of which were built since 1950. A direct
demographic impact of dam building has been
the displacement of an estimated 30 million to
60 million people by reservoirs and irrigation
works.
Source: www.aaas.org
In some cases, dams can also attract migration,
particularly if the water is channelled to arid
areas or if industries relocate to make use of the
resulting hydropower. Although dams contribute
to increased agricultural production and
economic growth, they can also adversely affect
fisheries and aquatic ecosystems (e.g., rivers,
floodplains, deltas, and mangroves). Disruptions
in natural flood cycles can disproportionately
affect the rural poor, whose livelihoods often
depend on wetlands, fisheries, and flooddependent agriculture. If aquatic ecosystems are
altered, these rural residents may be forced to
migrate to other areas.
Water and population dynamics
Population dynamics affect water resources,
but the relationship also works in the other
direction.
The India case study illustrates that in rural
areas of Karnataka State, population growth
has contributed to increased demands for
water, expanded drilling of boreholes (tube
wells), and resulting depletion of groundwater
resources and water scarcity. At the same time,
water scarcity has stimulated rapid emigration
to urban areas.
Water and population dynamics
The relationship is heavily influenced by the
local climate, topography, vegetation, geology,
and degree of human alteration of the
landscape. Socioeconomic conditions, culture,
institutional arrangements, and political
factors also play major roles. Thus, there are
no blanket prescriptions that will lead to more
sustainable water-population relationships in,
for example, Guatemalans PetÈn region
(lowlands and jungle) or the Kafue Flats of
Zambia.
Source: www..aaas.org
Water and population dynamics
It transcends national boundaries. River
basins do not always respect national
boundaries. Use of water upstream, which is
closely related to population dynamics and
economic development, affects countries
downstream. Likewise, downstream dams
can block fish from migrating upstream.
Source: www..aaas.org
Water and population dynamics
It transcends national boundaries.
In the Ganges River Basin, deforestation and
water abstraction in Nepal and India have
reduced river flows and caused dry-season water
shortages, salinization, and fishery depletion in
Bangladesh. People living in the Ganges delta
have been adversely affected by such changes.
Source: www..aaas.org
Water and population dynamics
It varies over time. In Mali, Morocco, and Jordan, cyclical
patterns of drought greatly affect water resources from year
to year. The population carrying capacity for these countries
may be influenced more by the periodic droughts than by
average annual rainfall over a 20 to 30 year period
Source: www..aaas.org
Water and population dynamics
It varies over time. In India and Bangladesh,
water availability is dramatically affected by
seasonal change, such as the onset of monsoon
season. Populations must adapt to these changes
accordingly.
Source: www.aaas.org
Source: www.pacificislandtravel.com/.../monsoons4.
Water and population dynamics
A better understanding of the
relationship between population
dynamics and water resources is a first
step toward designing policies that can
make these relationships more
sustainable.
Source: www.aaas.org
Policies should:
•take into account potential reciprocal impacts and
responses;
•be sensitive to local contexts, draw on
multidisciplinary knowledge, and employ
multisectoral strategies in problem analysis,
policymaking, project design, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation;
•account for upstream and downstream effects and
the shared nature of water resources;
•use adaptive management that is flexible enough to
adjust to the changing nature of water and
population relationships over time.
Source: www.aaas.org
Water scarcity
combined with overexploitation of the
available resources
threatens Chinese
sustainable
development. Rapid
economic growth
has led to overcommitment of
available surface
water resources,
overdraft of
groundwater
resources in many
areas
www.wrdmap.com
With 51 million hectares of irrigated land, China has
more than any other country. This compares with
some 46 million hectares in India and 20 million in the
United States, the countries ranking second and third
in irrigated area. Irrigated surfaces grew by 34
million ha from the 17 million ha since 1950. Far more
important to China than to those two nations,
irrigation covers roughly half of the total cropland
area and accounts for nearly four-fifths of the allimportant grain harvest. Located in the Northern
China plain, the basins of the rivers Huang, Hai and
Huai (3H basin) account for about 44% of corn, 67%
of wheat, 72% of millet, 40% of cotton and 24% of
vegetable oil productions.
Source: www.cybergeo.eu/index4141.html
Irrigation in the 3H basin is relying on a growing
number of deeper and deeper tube wells, so as to
pump into aquifers. The global level of the water table
fell by 1,5 meter per year between 1993 and 1998,
according to a study by the Agriculture University of
Beijing. With most aquifers being depleted, China is
now reconsidering its options for reestablishing a
balance between water use and supply, since the
destruction of these very aquifers would bring a
severe blow to agriculture in this region, given its
dependence on groundwater.
Source: www.cybergeo.eu/index4141.html
Source:
www.mwr.gov.cn/english1/20060110/2006011010
There is water enough in
China on a national
scale: about 2 260
m³/person/year on
average in 1999. But this
water is very unevenly
distributed: water
available figures up to 32
000 m³/person/year in
the coastal South-East,
whereas the North
China Plain receives
only 225 m³/person/year.
Source: www.cybergeo.eu/index4141.html
The only solution,
according to Chinese
planners, apart from
drastic measures to
cut down on rural
water use, or massive
and costly investment
in water-efficient
irrigation techniques,
is diversion of water
from elsewhere. The
diversion of the
Yangzi waters has
been debated among
Chinese planners
since 1952
Source: www.cybergeo.eu/index4141.html
The large
inter-basin
water
transfers
partially
solves the
problem of
Water
scarcity
Water resources are unevenly distributed in China with
great differences from south to north. Water resources are
rich in the south while insufficient in the north, especially in
the Huang-Huai-Hai (Yellow river, Huai river, and Hai river)
Plain.
Over-exploitation of surface water has caused withering of
some rivers and lakes, low capacity of flood discharge of
river channels, decrease of flow entering into the sea,
increasing siltation of river estuaries and increasingly water
disputes between regions, cities or townships. In 1990's, dryup of the Yellow River occurred very often. In 1997 the dryup period of the Yellow River reached to 226 days
Source: www.mwr.gov.cn/english1/20060110/20060110104100XDENTE.pdf
The regional hydrology and ecosystems of
the Hexi Corridor region of northwestern China
have changed over the last half century under the
driving force of intense human activity and regional
climate changes. Streamflow issuing from mountains
in the eastern section of the Corridor by way of the
Shiyang River has decreased significantly.
WANG GENXU ; CHENG GUODONG) ; MINGYUAN Du (2003) The impacts of human activity on hydrological processes in the arid
zones of the Hexi Corridor, northwest China, in the past 50 years IAHS-AISH publication ISSN 0144-7815
The region stretches over the territories
of Qinghain, Gansu, and Inner Mongolia, covering a
total area of 105 km2, including 103 km2 of
plains. Except for the southern
mountain region which receives over 300 mm year,
precipitation in most of the region is, on average, less than
200 mm year), with the tail reaches of inland rivers receiving
even less than 50 mm year.
J. Z. Ma, Z. Ding, J. B. Gates, Y. Su (2007) Chloride and the environmental isotopes as the indicators of the
groundwater recharge in the Gobi Desert, northwest China. Environmental Geology
The role of agriculture in water scarce areas is a main issue in
relation to sustainable water management as irrigation
agriculture is the biggest consumer of water.
The key orientations in the sector of agriculture in these regions
should be:
a) ensuring sustainable rural livelihoods and halting the rural
exodus
b) developing rural human resources and ensuring gendersensitive policies and institutions
c) enhancing sustainable natural resources management and
preparing to adapt to climate change impacts on the rural
environment; consequently, one of the priorities must be the
management of water resources.
d) contributing to regional food security goals
Source: www.mio-ecsde.org/staticpages/index.php?page=agriculture
It may be
considered as a
type area for
much of
northern China
where in modern
times an arid belt
lies at the
northern limit of
the area reached
by the SE
monsoon.
Ma, J.Z., Wang, X.S. and Edmunds, W M. (2005) The characteristics of
groundwater resources and their changes under the impacts of human activity in
the arid north-west China - A case study of the Shiyang river basin. J. Arid
Environments, 61: 277-295.
To the east this region
is fed by the Yellow
River, which then
passes through the
Gobi Desert. River
water has been used to
alleviate water
shortage, although
withdrawals have
increased significantly
and grossly reduced its
flow recently.
J. Z. Ma, Z. Ding, J. B. Gates, Y. Su (2007) Chloride and the environmental
isotopes as the indicators of the groundwater recharge in the Gobi Desert,
northwest China. Environmental Geology
Minqin Basin
The water level of No.94 well in Minqin Basin
0
10
15
20
25
Ja
nJa 78
nJa 79
nJa 80
nJa 81
nJa 82
nJa 83
nJa 84
nJa 85
nJa 86
nJa 87
nJa 88
nJa 89
nJa 90
nJa 91
nJa 92
nJa 93
nJa 94
nJa 95
n96
water level
5
Water level decline in Well No 94
(up to 1m per year)
Groundwater withdrawals
have increased significantly
and river grossly reduced
its flow in recent years.
The lake progressively
diminished in size splitting
into two smaller lakes
around the first century AD
due to upstream
abstraction. This process
continued over the last two
millennia with the complete
disappearance of the lake
by the mid 1950s
Ma, J.Z., Wang, X.S. and Edmunds, W M. (2005) The characteristics of
groundwater resources and their changes under the impacts of human activity in
the arid north-west China - A case study of the Shiyang river basin. J. Arid
Environments, 61: 277-295.
Minqin Basin
With potential
evaporation
estimates of
approximately 2600
mm/yr, mass-balance
considerations
clearly indicate that
direct recharge is not
sufficient to supply
the desert lakes, and
that additional
recharge sources
would be required to
do so.
Ma, J.Z., Wang, X.S. and Edmunds, W M. (2005) The characteristics of groundwater resources and their changes under the impacts of
human activity in the arid north-west China - A case study of the Shiyang river basin. J. Arid Environments, 61: 277-295.
Minqin Basin
J. Z. Ma, Z. Ding, J. B. Gates, Y. Su (2007) Chloride and the environmental isotopes as the
indicators of the groundwater recharge in the Gobi Desert, northwest China. Environmental
Geology
The only nearby major
sources of water are
down-gradient from the
desert interior (i.e.
Guezi Hu Wetland and
the Heihe River). The
Yabulai and Longshou
mountain ranges could
possibly supply
mountain-front or
mountain-block
recharge, but under
current climatic
conditions this would
not likely be able to
sustain flow volumes
implied by the lakes.
The oasis Minqin Oasis fed by the lower reach of
the Shiyang River and sustained by a shallow
regional water table, is the ancestral homeland for
thousands of farmers, supporting a variety of crops,
from cotton to sunflower
(A) Location of Shiyang River drainage in arid China. The north boundary of the present
Asian summer monsoon is shown by dotted line (revised from Gao et al., 1962). Black
filled circles and numbers 1–3 mark the locations of Bangong Co, Qinghai Lake and Lake
Daihai. (B) The Shiyang River drainage and location of the terminal lake area inserted.
Dashed line is former Shiyang river channel, named Daxihe River in history.Dotted area is
covered by dune sand; the shaded area is Qilian Mts. (C) TADEM image map, showing
topography of the terminal area. The desiccated lake basins closed by solid lines are a-L.
Xixiaochi, b-L. Dongxiaochi, c-L. Yema, d-L. Dongping, e-L. Sanjiaocheng, f-L. Xijian, gL. Mawangmiao and h-L. Baijian. The triangles and the capital letters mark the investigated
sections (see Fig. 2). The lowest pass of the closed basin is marked by the arrow; the
division between the eastern and western parts of the terminal lake by the dashed line.,
Qi Shi, Fa-Hu Chen, Yan Zhu, David Madsen, 2002 Lake evolution of the terminal area of Shiyang River drainage in arid China since the
last glaciation. Quaternary International
Qi Shi, Fa-Hu Chen, Yan Zhu, David Madsen, 2002 Lake evolution of the terminal area of Shiyang River drainage in arid China since the
last glaciation. Quaternary International
Ma, J., Ding, L., Jiawu, Z., Edmunds, W.M. and Prudhomme, C., 2003. Groundwater recharge and climatic change during the last 1000
years from unsaturated zone of SE Badain Jaran Desert. Chinese Science Bulletin,
An abandoned house in Minqin, where the harsh
environmental conditions have prompted many
families to move away. Many villages on the
northern reaches of Minqin, right on the deserts'
edge, are partially abandoned or totally empty.
Brazil
North: water resources concentrated in the
Amazon Basin
68 %
US$ 14.450 billion
23% Water Supply
77% Wastewater
Northeast: poorest and driest
3%
South-Southeast: urban and industrial
pollution
13%
Mid West: the new agricultural frontier
16%
Source:
www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
The Brazilian Semi-Arid region
encompasses 86% of the
territory of the NE States, the
northern part of Minas Gerais
(11%) and Espírito Santo (2,5%)
with a total area of 974.752
Km2.
Average annual rainfall is
750mm to as low as 400 mm in
some localities;
Estimated annual potential
evapotranspiration is 2,500mm.
Source:
www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stoc
kholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
ANTECEDENT CONDITIONS
• CONCEPT: centered on emergency and focusing on
drought “combat”;
• INSTRUMENTS: work forces, food and water stamps +
water infrastructure without management;
• PROBLEMS: local politics interference, maintenance
of high deficits, no preparedness for the next drought
and high public investments
Source: www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
• Objective
–
Provide sustainable
water supply to the
semi-arid NE region
of Brazil
• Concept
–
Competitive and
decentralized
program among semiarid States
–
Combination of water
infrastructure and
institutional
development
Source: www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
•
Implementation
–
Annual action program
submitted by States is
approved by Steering
Committee
–
Feasibility analysis of
Infrastructure (pipelines,
canals, dams and reservoirs)
based on detailed
consideration of technical,
economic and
environmental dimensions
–
Steering Committee Ministry of Environment –
ANA and Ministry of
National Integration
(infrastructure development)
Source: www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
UNDERGROUND
DAMS
Source:
www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
Source: www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
São Francisco Interbasin Water Transfer Project
Source: www.ana.gov.br/.../Water%20for%20the%20%20Brazilian%20Development_Stockholm%202005%20B.Braga.pps
CONCLUSIONS
Environmental concerns must be part of modernization in
water use and management. Extraction from rivers and lakes
and the construction of irrigation infrastructure invariably
displaces natural wetlands which are, themselves, highly
productive components of agro-ecological systems. Drainage
from irrigation often results in loss of water quality, the
spread of water-related diseases and soil degradation through
waterlogging and salinization. To reduce these impacts
modern water management needs to be based on strategic
environmental assessments and cost-benefit analysis, constant
environmental monitoring and integration of irrigation into
the wider environmental context.
Source:www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm
CONCLUSIONS-2
But there also needs to be wider recognition that sound water
management produces positive results, including the socioeconomic viability of entire rural areas, through development of
the social capital required to manage irrigation systems and the
expansion of transport and marketing infrastructure to sell
agricultural produce. Positive environmental effects of irrigation
include the creation of artificial wetland systems, micro-climates
and associated biodiversity. Land management for rain-fed
agriculture helps control soil erosion and protect downstream
areas from floods. "Recognizing the diversity and the amplitude
of these externalities is fundamental to sustainable development,"
FAO says. Conversely, management focused solely on crops will
become unsustainable in economic and environmental terms.
Source: www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm