HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT
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Andrew T. Nilsson, Ph.D.
Eastern Connecticut State University
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STAGE THEORIES
Human development is an orderly, sequential process.
Developmental stages are universal and largely
predictable
Early stages must be successfully completed before later
stages can be achieved.
COMPETING PERSPECTIVE
Human development is not an orderly, linear process.
Developmental spurts, periods of quiet, and periods of
regression often occur.
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THINK AND SHARE
Shakespeare’s Seven Stages of Man
In Act II, Scene VII of “As
You Like It,” Shakespeare describes
seven stages of human development
beginning with the famous line, “All
the world’s a stage…”
• Has human development changed
since 1599 when Shakespeare
probably wrote this play?
•What has stayed the same and what
has changed and why?
•How might these lines be different if
they were to be written today?
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HUMAN NEEDS HAVEN’T CHANGED
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
•
SELF
ACTUALIZATION
•
ACHIEVEMENT
•
BELONGING
•
SECURITY
•
SURVIVAL
Self-actualization - Being all
one can be
Achievement, esteem, egogratification, feeling good about
one's self
Belonging, social needs,
security in social relationships
Security "I don't have to
worry" Good education, job,
economic security, security for
tomorrow
Survival - "essential services"
food, shelter, clothing - hand to
mouth level
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EVALUATING THEORIES
Evaluate applicability of theory to client situations – is it
useful?
– Explanatory value – does it help you understand what you
see?
– Predictive value – can you use it to predict outcomes?
– Application value – does it tell you what to do?
Evaluate the research supporting the theory – is it empirically
verifiable?
Evaluate the theory from an ethical perspective. Could it lead
to unethical treatment?
Compare the theory with competing theories. Does it fit with
other knowledge? Is it the best alternative?
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PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
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SIGMUND FREUD
•Freud earns credit for being among the first to apply the
scientific method to the study of human psychology.
•He carefully recorded his work with patients, wrote case
studies, and generated hypotheses about human behavior.
•He developed psychoanalysis to both study and help his
patients with emotional problems, using techniques such as free
association and dream analysis to penetrate beyond the mind’s
conscious thoughts.
•Concepts and terminology he developed such as the
“unconscious,” “neurosis,” and “defense mechanism” continue
to be used today.
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SIGMUND FREUD’s
three part construction of personality
•Id – Home of primitive animalistic energy and subconscious
drives such as huger, elimination, and sex. Satisfaction of
drives yields pleasure.
•Ego – Driven by reality, begins developing shortly after birth.
The conscious, rational aspect of personality which mediates
between the demands of the id and the behavioral expectations
of the world. The ego exercises reason and sanity, evaluates
consequences, and determines a course of action.
•Superego – Develops between ages 3-5 – one’s conscience.
An internalized sense of morality learned from one’s parents.
Yields guilt when disobeyed. Without superego, a person would
be entirely egocentric (thinking only of one’s self), using the
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ego to satisfy the id.
SIGMUND FREUD’s
psychosexual stages of development
•Oral stage – birth to 18 months. Child’s activity centers on feeding,
stimulation of the mouth lips and tongue. Newborn has no sense of self or
others but process of feeding establishes the child’s first social bond.
•Anal stage – 18 months to age 3. Toilet training and bowel control. Infant
learns self-control and begins differentiating self from the rest of the world.
•Phallic (genital) stage – 3 to 6 years. Child becomes aware of his/her genitals.
–Oedipus complex – boy competes father for mother’s love, suffers
castration anxiety.
–Electra complex – girl falls sexually in love with father, suffers penis
envy (boys have something she lacks).
Resolved by reaction formation: development of socially acceptable
behavior or attitudes that are the opposite of one’s unconscious, repressed
impulses.
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SIGMUND FREUD’s
psychosexual stages of development
Latency stage – About age 6 to puberty. Sexual instincts are
quiet permitting child to invest energy in socialization and
education.
Genital stage – From puberty on. Mature sexuality. Major
drives are love and work.
Freud maintained that that most of the psychological
difficulties experienced by adults result from unresolved
childhood conflicts. Through psychoanalysis repressed
childhood memories and fantasies could be uncovered and
resolved.
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SIGMUND FREUD’s
defense mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are unconscious means used by the ego to defend
itself against demands made by the id, and the unrealistic expectations
of the superego.
Denial – Persistent rejection of intolerable reality. Refusal to face facts.
Unconscious – person convinces self; genuinely believes facts are not
true. Characteristic of substance abusers.
Repression – A deep form of denial where unpleasant memories are
pushed into the unconscious and completely forgotten to the conscious
mind. “Lost memory syndrome”
Displacement – Unconsciously shifting unacceptable feelings about one
person or situation onto another. Shifting anger toward one’s boss onto
one’s spouse.
Rationalization – Unconsciously using reason to justify unacceptable
thoughts, feelings, or behavior. The fox and the grapes.
Projection – Unconsciously attributing you own unacceptable ideas/urges
to others.
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CRITICAL ASSESSMENT
OF FREUDIAN THEORY
Evaluate the supporting research. On what evidence is Freudian theory
based?
– Freud’s experience was largely limited to troubled, wealthy Viennese
women. He never worked with children.
– There is no empirical evidence supporting many of his theoretical
constructs
– Lacking empirical verification, many of his theories are not clearly
defined or explained. For example, if you can’t pinpoint the location and
the exact nature of the id, ego, and superego, how clearly can you describe
their functioning?
Explanatory value
– Stages of psychosexual development, defense mechanisms were derived
from observation so describe, though fall short of explaining, what we see.
Application value
– The effectiveness of psychoanalysis has not been convincingly
demonstrated.
Competing theories
– Biological perspectives promise better explanatory value.
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USEFUL WEB SITES
The Library of Congress web site for its recent exhibition on
Freud places Freud in his historical context and provides
information about the cases on which Freud based his theory.
lcweb.loc.gov/exhibits/freud
A web search for “sigmund freud” reveals many relevant sites.
One of the most comprehensive is:
www.freudfile.org
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