RUSSIA
Russia
I. Authoritarian Oligarchy or Budding
Democracy
• Between 1945-1991 global politics
defined by competition between the
USA and USSR
• Collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 left
the Russian Federation as the largest
piece of territory remaining from the
USSR, its population was cut in half,
but it still remained the largest country
in the world in terms of geographic
size
• Boris Yeltsin became 1st president of the
Russian Federation, he initiated “Shock
Therapy” reforms
• Democracy
• Free Market Economy
Oligarchy vs. Democracy
Continued
• Oligarchy – a small group of Yeltsin’s family
members and personal advisors took control of
government and granted themselves favors,
inviting political and economic corruption
• Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and has
attempted to contain the oligarch’s influence in
some aspects of government:
• Centralization of Power in President
• Movement towards authoritarian rule
• Unpredictability of Russia (No experience with
democracy and free market economy)
• Slavic roots provide strong tendency to autocratic rule
Mr. Putin: Operative in the Kremlin
• Read this article and visit this website url:
• www.brookings.edu/research/interactives/2013/mr-putin
Create a summary of your own profile of Mr. Putin
Create a quick caricature of Putin. On each hand and foot
place an item or gesture that is indicative of his four most
important qualities, attributes, or methods for presiding over
Russian growth and power.
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
• Most of 20th century authority in Soviet Russia
came from the Politburo of the Communist Party
• Politburo – small group of men who climbed the
ranks of the party through the nomenklatura
system.
• Nomenklatura – ordered path from local party soviets
to the “commanding heights” of leadership
• When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority
and power of the Politburo dissolved with it.
Political Culture
Characteristics
• Geographic Setting
• Eastern Orthodoxy
• Equality of Result
• Hostile toward Government
• Importance of Nationality
Geographic Setting
• Geographic Setting
• Largest country in world
• Contains 11 time zones
• Majority of country is north of 49th degree latitude (U.S. – Canada
border)
• Abundance of Natural Resources that exist in inhospitable or
inaccessible geographic locations
Eastern Orthodoxy
• Eastern Orthodoxy
• Early in their history Russians established ties with Constantinople
and adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity as their religion
• This meant that they did not share the values of the Renaissance,
Reformation, Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
• Russians came to value a strong state to protect them from
geographic vulnerabilities instead of individualism
• Russian statism existed in contrast to Western “civil society”
• Eastern Orthodoxy also linked with the state, separation of church
and state therefore did not exist in Russia
• Russia developed a sense of global mission linked to there selfproclaimed title as the “Bastians of Eastern Christianity”. This
sense of global mission would be promoted by the Soviet Union in
their spread and preservation of communism (the Third
International)
Equality of Result
• Equality of Result
• Communist regime instilled a value of equality in the
Russian people already strong in a country of peasants
with similar living standards
• Egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union
• Most Russians resent differences of wealth or income
• Equality of Result vs. Equality of Opportunity
• Russian political culture is not particularly conducive to
the development of capitalism
Hostility toward Government & Nationality
• Hostility to Gov’t
• Despite strong, central
authority and Russian statism
citizens can be surprisingly
hostile toward their
government
• Years of repression spark
resentment that leads to
badmouthing of political
leaders
• Pessimism towards political
and economic policies
“Black” Russians
from Chechnya
• Importance of Nationality
• Cultural heterogeneity
• Discrimination and historical
stereotypes
• Baltic peoples usually viewed
favorably, Muslim-Turks viewed
in a negative light
• Anti-Semitism was strong under
the Tsars, some nationalists in
Russia blame the Jews for
Russia’s current problems
Anti-Semitism
alive and well.
Forbes list of
billionaires from
2004, updated
to determine
which are
Jewish.
Political Culture
• Long tradition of the collective over the
individual
• Rather be personally less successful than
see someone else be more successful,
advancement seen as unethical or
illegally gotten
• “Who Wants to be a Russian
Millionaire?” (with rubles?)
PC
• Putin attacks the new wealth of the oligarchs is largely applauded by
Russian people (consolidating power though?)
• Individuals do look out for themselves, however, in private lives, but
depend on state to provide, and lack commitment to idea that those
with ability who work hard should get ahead.
Political Culture
• Strong attachment to security and order at
expense of individual liberty and freedom
• Invasions=Mongols, Lithuanians and Poles,
French, Germans, and Germans again.
• Tendency to defer to a leader who portrays a
position of strength
• Political community=weakening attachment to
Russian national identity
• (more on identity in subsequent sections)
Napoleon and his Grand Army
invade Russia.
Pew Results
Most Russians give the EU
(64%) and U.S. (56%)
positive reviews, but not
NATO (37%).
Pew
Many in these three
nations believe the
enormous transformations
that have taken place since
the demise of the Soviet
Union have had negative
consequences for their
societies. In particular,
majorities in all three say
the changes since 1991
have had a bad influence
on the standard of living,
the way people in society
treat one another, law and
order, and public morality.
Pew
Twenty years after the
collapse of the Soviet
empire, roughly half of
Russians (48%) believe it is
natural for their country to
have an empire, while just
33% disagree with this
idea.
Half of Russians also agree
with the statement “it is a
great misfortune that the
Soviet Union no longer
exists;” 36% disagree.
Pew
Large majorities in all
three nations believe
that elites have
prospered over the
last two decades,
while average
citizens have not.
Pew
People in these former
Soviet republics are much
less confident that
democracy can solve their
country’s problems than
they were in 1991.
When asked whether they
should rely on a democratic
form of government or a
leader with a strong hand
to solve their national
problems, only about threein-ten Russians and
Ukrainians choose
democracy, down
significantly from 1991.
Pew
Two decades after
the Soviet Union’s
collapse, Russians,
Ukrainians, and
Lithuanians are
unhappy with the
direction of their
countries and
disillusioned with
the state of their
politics. Enthusiasm
for democracy and
capitalism has
waned considerably
over the past 20
years.
Socialization and Communication
• Govt uses control over communications in tsarist and
Soviet times to transmit blueprint for society
• Tsars• Orthodoxy-tsar as head of Orthodox Church, divine right
to rule
• Autocracy-unquestionable and absolute ruler
• Narodnost-tsar as father figure and unifier of Russian
nation
Tsars struggle with question of who belongs to Russian
nation but emphasize ethnic Russian characteristics, at
expense of minorities.
Soviets as a result set up ethno-territorial homelands for
minorities to gain their loyalty
In Soviet Period
• Newspapers, other publications fit facts into framework of
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Soviet ideology
Monopoly of political power for Communist Party, atheism,
superiority of economic planning.
Soviet legacy=suspicion of official government ideology
Years of socialization about correctness of MarxistLeninist
Collapse of Soviet union=people find out how corrupt
official ideology was
Whole life of socialization only to find in the end it’s a lie!
Socialization
• Soviets=most aspects of life (school, workplace, social
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organization, media, etc.) contribute to socialization
Soviet control of these institutions in effort to develop
support for regime.
Post-Soviet=more difficult to manipulate, especially in 10
years before Putin
Putin reasserts authority to control info. Media
consolidated and in some cases under state control.
Schools, cultural events, social organizations increasingly
embrace nationalism and greatness of Putin.
Cult of personality?? Scholars still say no because of
access to info from internet to cell phones.
Socialized by Events?
• 1. New Communist leader, different than all others
• 2. Period of significant pol, econ, social reform
• 3. Collapse of the economy
• 4. Coup against Communist leader
• 5. Collapse of polit system and disintegration of country
• 6. New polit system with non-Comm leader
• 7. Violent conflict between branches of govt—use of military force
• 8. New constitution, new elections
• 9. Internal conflict leading to military against region
• 10. Increasing terrorism
• 11. Resignation of president
• 12. Consolidation of power in new President
• DESIRE FOR STABILITY AND ORDER??
Sources of Power
• Most of 20th century authority in Soviet Russia came from the
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Politburo of the Communist Party
Politburo – small group of men who climbed the ranks of the party
through the nomenklatura system.
• Nomenklatura – ordered path from local party soviets to the
“commanding heights” of leadership
When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority and power of the
Politburo dissolved with it.
Now strength of president’s executive power and strong central
political authority
Clientalism-personal career ties now dominated by the silovikisecurity establishment whom Putin is tied to and worked extensively
with
Path to Power?
• Read the assigned excerpts about the nomenklatura
system.
• Answer the questions at the end of the handout and
summarize the excerpt.
Legitimacy
• Political legitimacy for Russia is currently low, partly because changes
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are a drastic departure from the past
Recent evidence that country is stabilizing under Putin.
Putin use authoritarian strategies to solidify Russia’s weak, illiberal
democracy.
Historically Russia’s political legitimacy has been based on strong,
centralized, autocratic rule
• Tsars
• Communist rule propagated by Marxism-Leninism
• Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of the
many
• Vanguard
• Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism
Constitution of 1993 – provided for a strong president, although
power of the president can technically be checked by popular
elections and the Duma
Legitimacy
• Population often links legit. to performance.
• Defeats in Crimean, Russo-Japanese and WWI weakens
legit.
• WWII=strength, example of socialist system power
although largely used nationalist appeals
• Economic success=Stalin, Krushchev, Putin, bring legit.
• Brezhnev, Gorbachev, Yeltsin lost legit as a result of
downturns
Beliefs and Attitudes
• Mistrust of Government – result of treatment and government
secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes
• Statism – despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still
expect the state to take active role in their lives
• Economic Beliefs – nearly all groups and political factions favor
market reforms, although not all do so enthusiastically
• Westernization - “Slavophile vs. Westernizer” – some political
parties emphasize nationalism, Russian interests, and Slavic culture;
others emphasize reform, and integration of Russia into world
economy and global trade
Type of Economic System
• Pre-1917 underdeveloped, heavily
agrarian, generally poor, earliest stages of
capitalist development
• Bolsheviks=War Communism and
nationalization of industries, unsuccessful
Econ. system
• Lenin—New Economic Plan (NEP)—elements of
capitalism
• Stalin—ends, nationalizes more, collectivizes agriculture
in countryside
• Soviets—socialist development, economic planning
approach, emphasis on heavy industry at expense of
consumer goods, rapid economic development
Econ. system
• 70’s/80’s growth slows—Andropov
targets absenteeism and alcoholism
as does Gorbachev
• Gorbachev—perestroika opens but
still protected industries
Economic System Cont.
• 1991-present—Uneven economic development
• Economic collapse in 1998
• By 2013 GDP per capita at $18,100+ vs $6,000-7,000
during the 90’s
• Reliance now=high global price of oil but will this last
forever?
• Also corresponding high inequality
• Russia more like Lesser Developed Country=substantial
gap between rich and poor and dependence on world
price of single commodity
5 Facts Explain Russia’s Decline
• Briefly summarize the five reasons that Russia’s economy
is in economic decline.
• Which of these five reasons are largely out of the control
of the Russian government? Which are within their
control?
• How has President Putin been able to increase his
popularity in the face of a declining economy?
Governance and Accountability
• Constitution of 1993-general broad-based
legitimacy=competetive elections, multiparty,
separation of powers, federalism, protection of
civil rights.
• Strength of presidential (PM?) power and
centralized control
• Complicated federal structure with 89 units
• Dominant exec but need legis approval.
• Dual executive—president and prime minister
Governance and Accountability
• No real judicial independence
• Poor salaries and lack of professionalism in civil
service=corruption and political influence
• “Path Dependence”?=do past experiences shape
choices and options?
• Putin—reversion to practices and centralization
from Soviet period?
Or rule of law and state capacity to govern
necessary for democracy?
Political Institutions (Federalism or
Unitary)
• Although the Soviet Union was highly centralized, it still
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maintained a federal government structure
Russian Federation has retained this model, with the
current regime consisting of 89 regions, 21 of which are
ethnically non-Russian by majority
Each region is bound by treaty to the Federation, not all
have officially signed on (Chechnya)
Most regions are called “republics”
Many republics ruled themselves independently, but Putin
has cracked down on this
Putin ended direct election of the 89 regional governors,
they are now nominated by the president and confirmed
by the regional legislatures, OR they may now AGAIN
have direct elections….
“Ruling Party Candidates Win All”
• What was the implication of the September 2015 elections
in Russia? These are seen as a “dress rehearsal” for
what?
• What is “Golos”? What was that organization’s comments
on the elections?
Levels of Government
• Federal Structure starts with 89 units (republics 21,
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oblasts 49, krais 10, autonomous okrug 10, autonomous
oblast 1, cities with federal status-St.
Petersburg/Moscow). Now have 83 as some have
consolidated.
Republics have generally viewed selves in special
category and most assertive with claims for autonomy or
sovereignty (Chechnya)
Republics tend to be in peripheral areas with some
concentrated ethnic groups
Constitution grants equal status to all units but Republics
have special rights (declare 2nd language and Const.)
Btw 94-98 46 different treaties signed
• Assymetrical federalism—giving different regions
varying privileges.
• Result=escalation of regional demands and drop in
perceived fairness of central policy
• 2000-2002 Putin wants uniform system of federal-regional
relations and rescinds bilateral treaties Yeltsin had signed
• Presidential Power=remove a governor or disband
regional legislature if they act unconstitutionally
Power Vertical
• Strengthening of integrated structure of exec power form
the top level down to the local level.
• Seven Federal Districts—on top of existing federal ones.
• Oversee work of federal offices in these regions and
ensure compliance with fed law and cont.
• Staffed with the security service personnell, a powerful
instrument of central control?
• Governors—used to be popularly (are elected now
again! 2014) elected and served as members of the
upper house (Federation Council) with heads of each
regional legislature
7 FEDERAL DISTRICTS
• 2001—no longer members of the Fed Council. Had voice
in federal laws but divided attention.
• State Council created to give them some role in central
decision-making.
• “Soft-Power mechanisms” help—clientalism btw central
and governors, minimal protest, cooperation=benefits
• 2004—Beslan massacre at school by Chenchen rebels.
Putin eliminates popular election and nominates regional
heads w/approval by regional legis. If refused 3
times=pres can disband body and call for elections.
• 2014—Governors now elected again!! (in some)
• Death of Russian federalism??
Fiscal federalism
• Distribution of tax revenues
• Putin=regional equalization—takes into account
regional tax bases and differences in needs in regions
Semipresidential: President & Prime Minister
• Duties of the President (Head of State)
• Appoints the prime minister and cabinet – Duma must approve
prime minister’s appointment, but if they reject the president’s nominee
three times, the president may dissolve the Duma
• Issue decrees that have force of law – cabinet has great deal of
power, Duma can not censure cabinet according to Constitution of 1993
• Dissolve the Duma – done by Yeltsin during legislative coup attempt
of 1993
• Prime Minister (Head of Government): relationship between PM
and President not exactly clear, but with no vice-president if anything
happens to president the PM assumes the office of president
• Semi-presidentialism: pres and PM both active participants in day
to day operation of the govt
Executive
• President=foreign policy, relations with regions, organs of
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state security
Prime Minister=economy and related issues.
President directly elected every 6 years for 2 terms.
Other Presidential powers: call state of emegency,
impose martial law, grant pardons, call referenda,
suspend state organs if against Const.
Commander in Chief
Difficult to impeach
Can veto bills and can introduce bills in the assembly
(veto can be overridden by 2/3 vote both houses)
Russian politics: Putin’s purges
• 1. Why has Putin been cracking down on some of
Russia’s political elites?
• 2. Does this seem to indicate a true spirit of reform or
something else?
Executive
• Prime Minister and Parliament:
• Never been a member of the dominant party or coalition
in the Duma (he is now)
• Principles of party accountability in parliamentary
systems is not applicable
• No disciplined parties and no formal links btw parties
and the executive
• Duma acceptance of govt proposals=authority of the
President and configuration of power at the time
Duma can pass 2 votes of no confidence and Pres has
to remove minister, but Pres can dissolve the Duma if
this happens
Power Ministries
• President directly controls
• Defense, interior, Foreign Affairs, Foreign intelligence
Service, Fed Agency for Comm. And Info., Border Service,
and Federal Security Service.
• Security Council—Pres also oversees.
• Pres
• PM
• Reps to the 7 federal districts
• Heads of power ministries
• Any other officials
• Used to strengthen power of fed govt vs regions
Bicameral Legislature: Federal Assembly
• Duma
• Lower House
• 450 deputies
• All chosen by PR party list
national vote.
• 7% threshold required for all
parties (used to be ½ PR, ½
SMD FPTP) Why change?
• Numerous standing
committees, all 29 chairs
United Russia
• Elects own speaker
• Both have immunity from
criminal prosecution
• Federation Council
• Upper House
• Two members appointed from
each of the 89 regions of the
federation
• Power to delay legislation
• On paper Federation Council
can change boundaries of
republics, ratify use of armed
forces, and appoint and
remove judges. These powers
have yet to be use however
Popular Impact on Legislation
• Society’s ability to affect decisions is minimal
• Parties isolated from public at large and suffer low levels
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of popular respect
Interest associations to lobby parliament are weak
Internal decision-making structures of parties are elite
dominated
Public hearings are rare
Representative of a diverse Russian public?
“If you cannot suppress them, squeeze them”
• 1. What were some of
the laws that the Duma
passed prior to its
summer break in July
2012?
• 2. What was the intent of
many of these laws?
• 3. Why were these laws
purposely vague in
parts?
Elections
• 3 types
• Referendum
• Duma Elections
• Presidential Elections
Elections
• Referendums: 1993 for ratification of the new
Constitution
• Parliamentary: 1993, 1995, 1999, 2003, 2007
• Presidential: 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008
• Pro-market/reform/West parties did terribly in
Parliamentary elections in 1990’s. United Russia (Unity)
did well with Vlad Putin after 2000.
• Free and fair elections are questionable
1993: Year of Elections – Year of
Transition
• March 1993 parliament attempts to impeach Yeltsin
• Legislative-led coup tries to usurp control of the
government
• Yeltsin dissolves legislature, calls for new elections
• Although opposition leaders were arrested, Yeltsin’s
opponents won the majority in the new legislature
• Radical Vladimir Zhirinovsky’s Liberal Party did surprisingly well
• Despite losing control of the legislature Yeltsin was able to
get approval for the new constitution: Constitution of
1993
Constitution of 1993
• Created a three-branch government
• President & Prime Minister
• Lower legislative house (DUMA)
• Constitutional Court
• Referendum - allowed for president to call for national
referenda by popular vote on important issues
• Yeltsin’s first referendum was on his job performance
• Second was for approval of the constitution itself
1993 Parliamentary Elections
• Voters for the Duma have 2 votes: 1 for a candidate in a
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district and 1 for a party (SMD/FPTP and PR Party List
with a 5% threshold) 225 and 225
Pro-reform parties did poorly, attacking each other rather
than work together
Liberal Democratic Party=24% of PR votes
Russia’s Choice=15% PR
Communists=13%
Independents win large # of SMD seats=personal nature
of Russian politics
1995 Parliamentary Elections
• Same voting, this time for 4-year terms.
• 43 parties run (13 in ‘93) but only 7 earn seats in the
Duma
• Communists do the best, as they replace LDP as protest
party against Yeltsin
• Communists still only 150 of the 450 seats, short of a
majority
1999
• Communists continue strength=24% PR vote
• Unity also does well with 23 %
2003 Parliament
• United Russia wins with 37.6%
• 120 seats from PR and 102 seats from SMD
• With some indeps. they control 300 seats
• 1st time since collapse that party has majority in the Duma
• Communists and LDP continue their presence
• Yabloko and Union of Right Forces (reform) both fail to
clear the 5% threshold and are out
2007 Parliament
• PR only party list 7% threshold, cast single vote for
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political party
4/11 parties get enough votes
United Russia—64% and 315 seats
LDP and A Just Russia—40 and 38 (both pro-Putin)
Communist Party only serious opposition=57 seats
United Russia and other pro-Putins pledge support for
Medvedev in next election
• Trend=ONE-PARTY DOMINANT SYSTEM
Changes
• 5 year terms for the Duma
• 1 seat to parties winning between 5 and 6%
• 2 seats to parties winning between 6 and 7%
“One-Party Dominant”
Duma Dec 4, 2011
• United Russia—50%, 238
• Communist Party—19%, 92
• Just Russia—13%, 64
Presidential Elections
• 1996 Yeltsin wins runoff against Communist Zyuganov,
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resigns in 1999
2000 Putin runs for 1st term at 53% in 1st round, Zyuganov
30% showing still strong Communists
2004 Putin wins with 69%, Russian electronic media
became Putin campaign outlets
2008 Dmitry Medvedev won easily, hinted Putin would be
next PM
2012—Putin with 64% of the vote, Zyuganoz again
around with 17%
Election Fairness
• Largely but not entirely free
• Individuals vote in secret
• Candidates run for office and can campaign
by providing info to voters
• But getting worse with “creeping
authoritarianism”
Russia’s Latest Fake Election
• What were the results of the municipal, regional and gubernatorial
elections in Russia in September 2015 elections in Russia for Explain
some of the ways that elections are being controlled in Russia to
assure that candidates associated with Vladimir Putin’s ruling party
win.
Judging from this article, why can Russia be called an “illiberal
democracy” at best.
• What does the author mean by a “culture of impunity” in Russia?
What is necessary for accountability in Russia’s political system?
Putin Orders Change in Election Rules
• 1. What are the changes in the election rules proposed
by Putin in January 2013?
• 2. Why did he propose these changes?
3. How might these affect future elections?
Political Parties
• Began forming after Revolution of 1991
• Small, factional
• Formed around particular leaders
• “Bloc of General Andrey Nikolaev and Academician Svyaloslav
Fyodorov”
• “Yuri Boldyrev Movement” (“Yabloko”)
• Formed around particular issues
• “Party of Pensioners”
• “Agrarian Party of Russia”
• “Women of Russia”
• Political Parties Today (United Russia, Communist Party, Reform
Parties)
United Russia
• Founded in April 2001
• Merger between “Fatherland All-Russia” Party and the
“United Party of Russia”
• United Party put together by oligarch Boris Berezovsky and other
entrepreneurs to support Putin in the election of 2000
• Merger put even more political support behind Putin
• United Russia won 221 of the 450 Duma seats in 2004
elections
• Putin won re-election in 2004 as the United Russia
candidate
• United Russia is hard to define other than that it is proPutin
• “Power Party”—lacks ideology, vehicle for Putin election
Vladimir Putin
Communist Party of the Russian
Federation (CPRF)
• Communist Party of the old Soviet Union (CPSU)
• After 1995 elections held 157 of the 450 Duma seats
• After parliamentary election of 2003 only retained 51 of
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the 450 Duma seats
Party leader Gennady Zyuganov finished second in the
1996 and 2000 elections, but support for the party
dropped each time, he withdrew from the race in the 2004
election
Party was weakened in 2004 when a breakaway faction
led by Vladimir Tikhonov split from the party
Party is less reformist than other parties, Zyuganov
opposed the reforms initiated by Gorbachev
Party emphasizes central planning and nationalism
Would like to see Russia regain territories it lost after
Soviet Union dissolution
Gennady Zyuganov
Reformist Parties
• Yabloko
• Taken strongest stand for prodemocracy
• Survived since 1993
• Grigori Yavlinski, leader,
finished 3rd in 2000
presidential election
• Name is acronym for its three
founders, also means “apple”
• Gained 4.4% of vote in 2003
parliamentary elections (4
seats) making it ineligible for
proportional representation
• Union of Right Forces
• “Rightest” only in the sense of
seeking truth
• Emphasizes development of
free market
• Supports privatization of
industry
• Had 29 seats in Duma prior to
2003
• After 2003 elections only won
3 seats (less than 5% of the
vote)
Liberal Democratic Party
• Controversial party
• Headed by Vladimir Zhirinovsky
• Extreme nationalist
• Anti-semitic
• Sexist
• Attacks reformist leaders and disliked Yeltsin
• Said he would use nuclear weapons on Japan if he were
elected
• Party reformulated as “Zhirinovsky’s Bloc” for
2000 presidential election, he received 2.7% of
vote
• Party did receive about 11% of vote in 2003
Duma elections (won 37 seats)
A Just Russia
Social democratic party formed as a merger of Rodina, Russian Party
of Life, and Russian Pensioners Party
Rights and freedoms of individuals
Functioning welfare state
Sergey Miranov
Progress Party
• Headed by Alexei Navalny
• Opposed to Putin and United Russia
• Want reform of the political system and possible
parliamentary democracy
• Decentralization of power
• Partnering up with the West
Party Registration
• 2001 Law on Parties: at least 10,000 members, branches
of at least 100 members in at least half regions
• 2004 Revised: membership must be 50,000 and
branches of at least 500 in half regions
• Only small number of parties could hit this target
• 2005: disallowed party coalitions to compete
• Now proof of registration in 40 regions
“Russia to ease law on forming political parties”
• 1. What was the change proposed by Medvedev (and
ultimately passed) by the Duma?
• 2. Why was the law changed?
• 3. If a number of new political parties emerge, as a result,
what do you think would be the result….would this
strengthen or weaken Putin’s United Russia Party?
Explain.
Leaders and Recruitment
• Vladimir Putin—ended 2nd term as Pres in ‘08, serves as
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PM as powers has shifted from presidency. Still central
figure.
Born in Leningrad, received civil law degree at Leningrad
State U. Long period of service in the KGB.
Joined admin of St. Petersburg mayor in 1991. 1997
Yeltsin makes him head of the FSB. 1999 Yeltsin names
him new PM.
Acting Pres as Yeltsin resigns in January.
Perceived as strong and energetic. Skilled in judo.
Control Chechnya, consolidate power, favors own “clans”
Leaders
• Dmitry Medvedev—new Pres in 2008
• With Putin as PM=“hyper-presidential” political system
• Few inside or out believed Medvedev the supreme
political leader
• Formerly part of Putin’s St. Petersburg inner circle, former
chief of staff, and managed 2000 pres campaign.
• One-time chairman of massive energy company Gazprom
• Supported free market economics critical of Russian
governmental corruption.
Lenin
• Son of a nobleman, expelled law school, self-taught
lawyer, leader of Bolsheviks
Stalin
• Son of poor peasants from Georgia, involve in Rev
activities as teenager, arrested and exiled before Gen Sec
Krushchev
• Son of miner in southern Russia, factory worker in
Ukraine, technical ed in HS, worked way up through
Comm Party ranks
Brezhnev
• Son of factory worker, worked in factory, studied in tech
school, political officer of Red Army, protégé of Krushchev,
rose through ranks
Andropov
• Son of railway worker, telegraph operator, boatman,
worked way up through ranks
Chernenko
• Born in Siberia, joined Comm Party at 20 as
propagandist, worked way up
Gorbachev
• Son of mechanic, farm worker, Moscow State U., law
degree, joined Comm as student, worked way up.
Yeltsin
• Grandson of peasants deported by Stalin, son of
construction worker, degree in engineering, elected to
legislature.
Interest Groups
• Oligarchy
• Tied closely with the Yeltsin family
• By mid-1990s monopolized
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Russian industry and built huge
fortunes
Boris Berezovsky – admitted that
he and six other entrepreneurs
controlled over half the GNP
Dominant in oil, media, and
television industries
Helped Yeltsin win 1996 election
Created and financed the Unity
Party in 2000 and got Vladimir
Putin elected
• Russian Mafia
• Larger and perhaps even more
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influential than the oligarchy
Initially involved in underworld
crime
During Revolution of 1991 gained
control of businesses, natural
resources, and banks
Involved in money laundering,
drugs, prostitution, and business
payoffs (“protection money”)
Includes former members of the
KGB
Interest Groups II
• Huge fortunes made by oligarchs and the mafia offend the equality of
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opportunity principle of the Russian people
In the past, lawlessness in Russia has been dealt with by repressive,
authoritarian rule, and these groups represent a threat to the new
democracy
Putin arrested television magnate Vladimir Gusinsky for corruption
and his company was given to a state-owned monopoly
In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of
the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian
government was consolidating power
Yukos was slapped with massive penalties and additional taxes,
forcing it into bankruptcy
• Russian Media – a linkage institution with close ties to
both the state and the oligarchy, has been manipulated by
dominant political and interest groups to pursue their own
causes
Bureaucracy
• Soviet era nomenklatura—long list of competent and loyal
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and politically connected, 1.5 million
1 million in Russian ranks inherited from this system
Culture of the bureaucracy has remained a problem
“us vs them” between bureaucrats and govt officials
Some moves to merit based and honest
2006 World Bank report=one of few post-communist
countries where corruption, including payments to
officials, increased from 2002 to 2005
Military
• Was a source of strength during the Soviet era, 1945•
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1991
Once stood at over 4 million men
Generally did not get involved in politics, this continues
under the Russian Federation
One prominent general, Alexander Lebed, gained political
following before the 1996 election and had to be coopted
by Yeltsin in order for Yeltsin to win reelection
Suffered significant humiliation from the late 1980’s to
early 21st century
• Withdrawal from Afghanistan
• Defeated by Chechen guerrillas in 1994-1996 conflict
• Often ill-equipped, Russian soldiers had to feed themselves and
went unpaid for months in late 1990’s and early 21st century
Military
• Problem of hazing—”rule of the grandfathers”
• Tradition of beating young conscripts, one beaten so
badly his legs and genitals had to be amputated
• Hazing, crime, and suicide led to 1,000+ non-combat
deaths in military in 2005 alone.
Judiciary
• Supreme Court
• Created by 1993 Constitution
• Serves as final court of appeals in criminal & civil cases
• Constitutional Court
• Created by 1993 Constitution
• 19 members
• Appointed by president and confirmed by Federation Council
Judicial Backsliding in Russia
• What is meant by the “dualist” legal system in Russia?
• What steps by the government were seen as improving the legal
system in the past 15 years?
• In addition to the “stand-alone” Constitutional Court, what are the two
major court systems in Russia? What are the differences in which
these are organized and operate in adjudicating disputes?
• What issues have emerged with the intended reforms of the judicial
system?
ST III: Citizens, Society, and the State
Nationality
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Most important single cleavage in Russia
80% of population is Russian
Others include:
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Tatars
Ukrainians
Armenians
Chuvashes
Bashkis
Byelorussians
Moldavians
Nationality continued
• Nationality cleavages determine the organization
of the country into “federations”, “autonomous
regions”, republics, and provinces
• Many ethnic groups would like to have their
independence, but are enticed by trade benefits
with the Russian government to stay in the
Federation
• Chechnya is the one exception
Chechnya
• Primarily Muslim region of Russia
• Contains some valuable resources, such as oil
fields
• Independence movement is strong, and Russian
government has struggled to keep Chechnya
region within its control
• Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics
including taking over a heavily attended Russian
theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that
resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly
children
Citizens, Society, and the State continued
Religion
• Russian Orthodox under the tsars
• All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions
rule
• Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox
Church to reestablish itself as a signal of a break
from communism and a reflection of old Russian
nationalism
• Other religions represented in very small
percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims,
Protestants)
Religion
• Orthodox Church into political mainstream now.
• Laws have been passed which have privileged religions
like Orthodox Christianity
• Muslims—birthrate significantly higher than the rest of the
population
• 15% of the total population
• Many religious cults have also flourished
• Offerings—answers to the ideological vacuum at USSR
collapse.
• Many laws passed to limit their creation.
Citizens, Society, and the State continued
Social Class
• Russian society much more egalitarian than western
societies with a few notable exceptions
• Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members, and
all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within this group
egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance was given to
economic and social background
• Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsin’s regime, often former KGB
and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to promote
business. Struggled in late 1990’s but have emerged as leaders in Russia
after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil. Putin had
to arrest or send into exile CEO’s of these companies for refusing to pay or
underpaying government taxes
Social Class
• There is a visible rich class. Mostly in larger cities and do
not hold political positions.
• Sizeable gap between rich and poor has fed anger over
reforms.
• See “Inequality” article.
Rural vs. Urban Life
• 73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the
western part of the country
• Economic divide between rural and urban residents is
wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent
economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia
• Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch
with western culture
Civil Society
• Hundreds of political and social orgs exists in every region
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of Russia.
Nationwide=women, children, veterans, environment,
pensioners, cultural interests.
Also sports, professional unions, labor unions, social
welfare organizations.
Must register with local authorities.
Most successful=better off elements of society like
business entrepreneurs
Official trade union now Federation of Independent Trade
Unions (FITU)=labor action key form of protest
Government Civil Society?
• Civic Forum—official forum for all-Russian congress of
NGO’s (public relations?)
• Public Chamber—mechanism for public consultation and
input, and creating public support for policy
• Corporatist Approach=co-opt public activists from more
disruptive actions
Freedom House
• 2015 Report on Russia by Freedom House: View the
report at the following url:
• https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedomworld/2015/russia#.VQWpLDgtHZ4
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• What is the Freedom House ranking of Russia? What
does this indicate? Why was Russia assigned this ranking
per the rating change and overview?
• Briefly summarize key areas of the report including the
following:
Freedom House cont.
• Political Rights
• A. Electoral Process:
• B. Political Pluralism and Participation:
• C. Functioning of Government:
Freedom House cont.
• Civil Liberties
• D. Freedom of Expression and Belief:
• E. Associational and Organizational Rights:
• F. Rule of Law:
• G. Personal Autonomy and Individual Rights
Media Roles
• Use the ancillaries on Monday!
Political Participation
• During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore was
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close to 100%
Gorbachev’s reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet
Union that followed through to the Russian Federation
In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the
U.S.
Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only 50.3%,
but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over the country
Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections to
less than 65% for the 2004 elections
Lack of participation may be due to Russia’s underdeveloped civil
society
Only 1% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political
party
Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups
Social Movements
• Late Soviet period=widespread movements
• Gorbachev’s policies allow—people follow and talk about
political events and participate in all kinds of activities
• Environmentalists protest past policies and team up with
nationalists in regions to help bring demise of USSR
• After collapse=politically burnt out…economy a
mess…with creeping authoritarianism the costs are higher
to protest
Citizenship and Represenation
• Ethnic diverstiy leads to dissonant views of identity and
incongruent nation building
• Some nationalists=ethnic Russians form nation’s
boundaries, whether in Russia or not
• Others=sought a more civic form of national identity
encompassing minorities
Historical Influences on Politics
• Absolute, Centralized Rule
• Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity –
ethnic diversity and numerous “republics” and
“autonomous regions” reflected in name “Russian
Federation”
• Slavophile vs. Westernizer
• Revolutions of 20th Century
Political & Economic Change
1.
Long period of Autocratic rule by Tsars – ruled Russia
from the 14th century to the early 20th. Control of Russia passed down
through the Romanov family from the 17th century on, but transitions
were often accompanied by brutality and assassinations
2.
20th century rule by Communist Party – began in 1917
when Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized control of the government after the last
tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in 1991 when a failed
coup from within the government created chaos
3.
Regime change to Democracy and Free Markets in
1991 – President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place to
help create the Russian Federation
Early Tsarist Rule
• First tsars were princes of Moscow who
cooperated with Mongol rulers in the 13th century
• After Mongol empire weakened the princes
named themselves “tsars” in the tradition of the
“Caesars” of ancient Rome
• Autocratic from the beginning to protect
themselves against invasion and attack
• Tsars served as official head of Eastern Orthodox
Church, they were seen as political and religious
leaders
“Western” Tsars
• Peter the Great
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Ruled in late 17th and early 18th century
Introduced western technology and culture to Russia
First tsar to travel to Germany, Holland, & England
Brought engineers, carpenters, and architects to Russia
Set Russia on course to becoming a world power
• Catherine the Great
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Originally from Germany
Ruled during the late 18th century
Russia gained warm water access to the Black Sea under her reign
“Enlightened Despot” – interested and read Enlightenment ideas, she ruled
absolutely but with the good of the people in mind
• Tsars after Peter and Catherine alternated between emphasizing Slavic
roots and tolerating western reforms
19th Century
• Russia invaded by Napoleon in 1812
• Alexander I resists invasion and ultimately drives French out of Russia
• Russian intellectuals influenced by Western thought grew weary of tsarist
absolutism and revolted: Decembrist Revolt of 1825
• Revolt crushed by Nicholas I
• Crimean War – Russia defeated by UK, France, and Ottoman Empire. Defeat was a
significant blow for confidence in tsarist leadership among Russians
• Tsars used secret police for investigations, as well as exiling and execution of
dissenters in 19th century
• Alexander II only 19th century tsar to embrace reforms, however he was
assassinated in 1881.
• He freed Russian serfs
• Set up regional zemstvas (assemblies)
• Alexander III reacted to assassination by undoing reforms and intensifying
efforts of secret police.
Revolution of 1917
• Causes
• Russia’s defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
• Ineffectiveness in World War I
• Riots first break out in 1905 after Russians
defeated by Japanese
• Revolts were suppressed but state collapsed in
1917 amidst World War I
• Russian soldiers were fighting without guns and
shoes, military defections from the war helped
send the state into chaos
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
• Mensheviks – Russian Marxists who believed that
socialist revolutions would first take place in industrialized
countries such as Germany and England, Russians would
have to wait to modernize
• Vladimir Lenin – communist who disagreed with
Mensheviks, he argued for democratic-centralism, or a
“vanguard” leadership group to lead the revolution in the
name of the people
• Bolsheviks – followers of Lenin, practice Marxism-
Leninism, took control of Russian government in late 1917
(October Revolution).
Lenin & Bolsheviks continued
• Brest-Litovsk Treaty – negotiated between Bolsheviks and Germans
to end Russian involvement in WWI. Russians ceded a third of their
arable land to the Germans under the Treaty
• In 1918 civil war broke out in Russia between the White Army, led by
Russian military leaders and backed by the Allies, and the Red Army
led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Red Army victorious.
• New Economic Policy (NEP) – instituted by Lenin in 1920 following
civil war, allowed for a great deal of private ownership to exist under a
centralized leadership
• Lenin dies in 1924, after brief struggle for power amongst Bolsheviks
he is succeeded by Josef Stalin, “Man of Steel”
Stalinism
• Stalin places Communist Party (CPSU) at center of
control
• Leaders identified through nomenklatura – process of selecting
individuals from lower levels within party (Kept a file for anybody
who was somebody)
• Central Committee: group of 300 party leaders who were the top
government officials
• Politburo: “heart and soul” of Communist Party, group of 12 men
from the Central Committee who ran the country, all government
agencies and departments were at their disposal and carried out
their decisions
• General Secretary: head of the Politburo, “dictator” of the country
(Stalin was General Secretary from 1927–1953)
Stalinism II
• Collectivization & Industrialization
• Replaced the NEP with “collective farms”
• Private land ownership abolished, kulaks forced to move to cities
or labor camps
• Five-Year Plans: ambitious goals for production of heavy industry
such as oil, steel, and electricity. Labor and factories fueled by
agricultural surplus produced from the farms
• Gosplan: Central State Planning Commission, in charge of FiveYear Plans, became the center for the economy, determined
production and distribution of virtually all goods in Soviet Union
• Stalinism – the two-pronged program of collectivization
and industrialization, carried out by central planning,
executed with force and brutality
Stalin’s Foreign Policy
• Primary concern internal development, foreign policy was
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meant to support this
Stalin advocated “socialism in one country”
Signed Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939
After Nazis invade Soviet Union in 1940, Stalin joins the
Allies to fight Germans in World War II
Red Army drives Nazis out of Soviet Union and back to
Berlin where the Germans are defeated in 1945.
Red Army occupies majority of Eastern Europe during this
time period
Tensions between Soviets and the West, particularly the
United States, become a growing foreign policy concern
for Stalin
Cold War
The Purges
• Execution of millions of Soviet citizens
• As many as one million communist party members
executed
• Stalin obsessed with disloyalty within the party
• Generals, Central Committee members, and Politburo
officials purged as a result of Stalin’s paranoia
Khrushchev
• Follows Stalin as General Secretary after brief power
struggle in CPSU
• 1956, gives “secret speech” (based on letter written by
Lenin) denouncing Stalinism, initiates reforms that lead to
“DeStalinization” process in Soviet Union
• Diplomatic and military failure of the Cuban Missile
Crisis leads to his downfall and removal as General
Secretary
Khrushchev’s Reforms
• Loosen government censorship of press
• Decentralization of economic decision-making
• Restructuring of collective farms
• “Peaceful Coexistence” foreign policy in Cold War
diplomacy with U.S. (Cuban Missile Crisis threatens this
initiative)
Brezhnev
• Eventually succeeds Khrushchev as General
Secretary of CPSU and head of state of the
Soviet Union
• Hard-line, conservative member of Communist
party
• Ends reforms initiated by Khrushchev
• “Détente” is dominant foreign policy in Cold War
diplomacy with U.S., this ends with the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan ordered by Brezhnev in
1979
Gorbachev
• Takes over as General Secretary in the mid-
1980’s
• Leads a younger generation of communists
• Educated and more “westernized” then previous
Soviet leaders
• Initiates a wave of reforms that included:
• Glasnost
• Perestroika
• Demokratizatsiia
Glasnost – “Openness”
• Open discussion of political, social, and economic
issues
• Allowed for open criticism of government and
government policies
• Gorbachev stressed that the ultimate test of the
party lay in improving the economic well-being of
the country and it’s people
• Open market relations
• Pragmatic economic policy
• Less secretive government
Perestroika – “Restructuring”
• Loosened controls of the Communist Party,
allowing group formation in other sectors of
society
• Economic Restructuring
• Modernization from within
• Transfer economic power from central government to
private hands and market economy
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Authorization of privately owned companies
Penalties for under-performing state factories
Price reforms
Encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies
Leasing of farm land outside the collective farms
Demokratizatsiia
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Gorbachev wanted to insert some democratic
characteristics into the old Soviet structure
However, he did want to maintain Communist
Party control
Reforms included:
1. A new Congress of People’s Deputies with directly
elected representatives
2. New position of “President” that was selected by the
Congress
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Deputies were often critical of Gorbachev
Increasing levels of displeasure with government from both
liberal and conservative members of Communist Party
Revolution of 1991
• August 1991
• Led by “Conservatives” (those opposed to, or who wanted
to abandon Gorbachev’s reforms)
• Vice-president
• Head of the KGB
• Top military advisers
• Coup failed when popular protests erupted and soldiers
defected rather than support their leaders
• Protesters were led by Boris Yeltsin, president elect of the
Russian Republic
• Gorbachev restored to power, but by December 1991
eleven Soviet republics declared their independence
• Gorbachev officially announces dissolution of Soviet
Union
Boris Yeltsin
• Former member of Politburo, removed because his
radical views offended conservatives
• Even more extreme than Gorbachev
• Elected president of Russian Republic as result of voting
procedures put in place by Gorbachev
• Emerged as president of the largest republic, Russian
Federation, after Soviet Union dissolves
• Attempts to create a “western-style” democracy
• “Shock Therapy” economic reforms (Immediate market
economy)
• Russian economy does not respond to “shock therapy” reforms
• Conflict erupts between Yeltsin and the Duma
Yeltsin II
• Poor president
• Hires and fires numerous prime ministers
• Alcoholic & frequently ill; this leads to erratic political
behavior
• Resigns before the 2000 elections
• Vladimir Putin, Yeltsin’s prime minister, takes over and
wins the 2000 & 2004 elections
Public Policy/Current Issues
• The Economy
• At the heart of the Soviet demise in 1991
• Perestroika reforms – market economy programs inserted into
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traditional centralized state ownership design
“Shock Therapy reforms” – created chaotic conditions that resulted
in a small group of entrepreneurs running the economy
In 1997 economy collapsed when government defaulted on billions
of dollars of debts
Russian stock market lost half its value, threatened global markets
as well
Ruble lost value rapidly, by 2002 it took more than 30,000 rubles to
equal one dollar
The overall economy did see slight improvements in 1999–2000
In 2004 the economy grew 7%, and standards of living improved,
the first real signs that the Russian economy was starting to thrive
again
Foreign Policy
• Relations with Former
Republics
• Confederation of Independent
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States (CIS)
Russia is the clear leader of
organization
Is not nearly as successful,
economically and politically, as
the EU
Bonded together by trade
agreements
Tensions of nationality issues
Putin’s meddling in Ukrainian
election of 2004 was cause for
concern
• Relations with the World
• Adjustment period for Russia
following Cold War and loss
of superpower status
• Offered aid and foreign
investment by U.S.
• Accepted into the G-7 (now
known as G-8)
• UN Security Council
permanent member
• Has joined the World Trade
Organization (WTO)
Putin’s Syria Intervention
• How did Vladimir Putin’s experience as a KGB officer in East
Germany affect him? How did his analysis of a “paralysis of power” in
East Germany affect his domestic policies once he became
president?
• Which historical events in Russia led to his opposition to a
“freewheeling democracy”? Why does he think that Russians are not
ready for democracy? What has been the result of this distrust of the
will of the people?
• How have Putin’s actions in the Ukraine/Crimea and in other
countries reflected his views of the role of the state?