Chapter 12
Russia
I. Authoritarian Oligarchy or
Budding Democracy
Between 1945-1991 global politics defined by
competition between the USA and USSR
 Collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 left the Russian
Federation as the largest piece of territory
remaining from the USSR, its population was cut
in half, but it still remained the largest country in
the world in terms of geographic size
 Boris Yeltsin became 1st president of the Russian
Federation, he initiated “Shock Therapy” reforms

– Democracy
– Free Market Economy
Oligarchy vs. Democracy
Continued
Oligarchy – a small group of Yeltsin’s family
members and personal advisors took control of
government and granted themselves favors and
inviting political and economic corruption
 Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and has
attempted to contain the oligarchies influence in
some aspects of government

– Centralization of Power in President
– Movement towards authoritarian rule
– Unpredictability of Russia (No experience with
democracy and free market economy)
– Slavic roots provide strong tendency to autocratic rule
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and
Power
Most of 20th century authority in Soviet Russia
came from the Politburo of the Communist Party
 Politburo – small group of men who climbed
the ranks of the party through the nomenklatura
system.

– Nomenklatura – ordered path from local party
soviets to the “commanding heights” of leadership

When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority
and power of the Politburo dissolved with it.
III. Legitimacy





Political legitimacy for Russia is currently very low, partly because
changes are a drastic departure from the past
Recent evidence that country is stabilizing under Putin.
Putin may use authoritarian strategies to solidify Russia’s weak,
illiberal democracy.
Historically Russia’s political legitimacy has been based on strong,
centralized, autocratic rule
– Tsars
– Communist rule propagated by Marxism-Leninism
 Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of
the many
– Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism
Constitution of 1993 – provided for a strong president, although
power of the president can technically be checked by popular
elections and the Duma
IV. Historical Influences on Politics
 Absolute,
Centralized Rule
 Extensive Cultural
Heterogeneity – ethnic diversity and
numerous “republics” and “autonomous regions”
reflected in name “Russian Federation”
 Slavophile
vs. Westernizer
 Revolutions of 20th Century
V. Political Culture
Characteristics
 Geographic
Setting
 Eastern Orthodoxy
 Equality of Result
 Hostile toward Government
 Importance of Nationality
Geographic Setting

Geographic Setting
– Largest country in world
– Contains 11 time zones
– Majority of country is north of 49th degree
latitude (U.S. – Canada border)
– Abundance of Natural Resources that exist in
inhospitable or inaccessible geographic
locations
Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodoxy
– Early in their history Russians established ties with
Constantinople and adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity as
their religion
– This meant that they did not share the values of the
Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment
– Russians came to value a strong state to protect them from
geographic vulnerabilities instead of individualism
– Russian statism existed in contrast to Western “civil society”
– Eastern Orthodoxy also linked with the state, separation of
church and state therefore did not exist in Russia
– Russia developed a sense of global mission linked to there selfproclaimed title as the “Bastians of Eastern Christianity”. This sense of
global mission would be promoted by the Soviet Union in their spread
and preservation of communism (the Third International)
Equality of Result

Equality of Result
– Communist regime instilled a value of equality in the
Russian people already strong in a country of
peasants with similar living standards
– Egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet
Union
– Most Russians resent differences of wealth or income
– Equality of Result vs. Equality of Opportunity
– Russian political culture is not particularly conducive
to the development of capitalism
Hostility toward Government &
Nationality

Hostility to Gov’t
– Despite strong, central
authority and Russian
statism citizens can be
surprisingly hostile toward
their government
– Years of repression spark
resentment that leads to
badmouthing of political
leaders
– Pessimism towards political
and economic policies

Importance of
Nationality
– Cultural heterogeneity
– Discrimination and
historical stereotypes
– Baltic peoples usually
viewed favorably, MuslimTurks viewed in a negative
light
– Anti-Semitism was strong
under the Tsars, some
nationalists in Russia blame
the Jews for Russia’s
current problems
VI. Political & Economic Change
–
1.
Long period of Autocratic rule by Tsars
2.
20th century rule by Communist Party – began in
ruled
Russia from the 14th century to the early 20th. Control of Russia passed
down through the Romanov family from the 17th century on, but
transitions were often accompanied by brutality and assassinations
1917 when Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized control of the government after the
last tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in 1991 when a
failed coup from within the government created chaos
3.
Regime change to Democracy and Free Markets
in 1991 – President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place
to help create the Russian Federation
Early Tsarist Rule
First tsars were princes of Moscow who
cooperated with Mongol rulers in the 13th
century
 After Mongol empire weakened the princes
named themselves “tsars” in the tradition of the
“Caesars” of ancient Rome
 Autocratic from the beginning to protect
themselves against invasion and attack
 Tsars served as official head of Eastern Orthodox
Church, they were seen as political and religious
leaders

“Western” Tsars

Peter the Great
–
–
–
–
–

Ruled in late 17th and early 18th century
Introduced western technology and culture to Russia
First tsar to travel to Germany, Holland, & England
Brought engineers, carpenters, and architects to Russia
Set Russia on course to becoming a world power
Catherine the Great
–
–
–
–
Originally from Germany
Ruled during the late 18th century
Russia gained warm water access to the Black Sea under her reign
“Enlightened Despot” – interested and read Enlightenment ideas, she
ruled absolutely but with the good of the people in mind
– Tsars after Peter and Catherine alternated between emphasizing Slavic
roots and tolerating western reforms
19th Century
Russia invaded by Napoleon in 1812
 Alexander I resists invasion and ultimately drives French out of Russia
 Russian intellectuals influenced by Western thought grew weary of tsarist
absolutism and revolted: Decembrist Revolt of 1825


– Revolt crushed by Nicholas I
Crimean War – Russia defeated by UK, France, and Ottoman Empire. Defeat was
a significant blow for confidence in tsarist leadership among Russians
Tsars used secret police for investigations, as well as exiling and execution
of dissenters in 19th century
 Alexander II only 19th century tsar to embrace reforms, however he was
assassinated in 1881.

– He freed Russian serfs
– Set up regional zemstvas (assemblies)

Alexander III reacted to assassination by undoing reforms and intensifying
efforts of secret police.
Revolution of 1917

Causes
– Russia’s defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
– Ineffectiveness in World War I
Riots first break out in 1905 after Russians
defeated by Japanese
 Revolts were suppressed but state collapsed in
1917 amidst World War I
 Russian soldiers were fighting without guns and
shoes, military defections from the war helped
send the state into chaos

Lenin and the Bolsheviks

Mensheviks – Russian Marxists who believed that
socialist revolutions would first take place in
industrialized countries such as Germany and England,
Russians would have to wait to modernize

Vladimir Lenin – communist who disagreed with
Mensheviks, he argued for democratic-centralism, or a
“vanguard” leadership group to lead the revolution in the
name of the people

Bolsheviks – followers of Lenin, practice MarxismLeninism, took control of Russian government in late
1917 (October Revolution).
Lenin & Bolsheviks continued

Brest-Litovsk Treaty – negotiated between Bolsheviks and
Germans to end Russian involvement in WWI. Russians ceded a
third of their arable land to the Germans under the Treaty

In 1918 civil war broke out in Russia between the White Army, led
by Russian military leaders and backed by the Allies, and the Red
Army led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Red Army victorious.

New Economic Policy (NEP) – instituted by Lenin in 1920
following civil war, allowed for a great deal of private ownership to
exist under a centralized leadership

Lenin dies in 1924, after brief struggle for power amongst
Bolsheviks he is succeeded by Josef Stalin, “Man of Steel”
Stalinism

Stalin places Communist Party (CPSU) at
center of control
– Leaders identified through nomenklatura – process of selecting
individuals from lower levels within party (Kept a file for anybody
who was somebody)
– Central Committee: group of 300 party leaders who were the
top government officials
– Politburo: “heart and soul” of Communist Party, group of 12
men from the Central Committee who ran the country, all
government agencies and departments were at their disposal
and carried out their decisions
– General Secretary: head of the Politburo, “dictator” of the
country (Stalin was General Secretary from 1927–1953)
Stalinism II

Collectivization & Industrialization
– Replaced the NEP with “collective farms”
– Private land ownership abolished, kulaks forced to move to
cities or labor camps
– Five-Year Plans: ambitious goals for production of heavy
industry such as oil, steel, and electricity. Labor and factories
fueled by agricultural surplus produced from the farms
– Gosplan: Central State Planning Commission, in charge of FiveYear Plans, became the center for the economy, determined
production and distribution of virtually all goods in Soviet Union

Stalinism – the two-pronged program of collectivization
and industrialization, carried out by central planning,
executed with force and brutality
Stalin’s Foreign Policy
Primary concern internal development, foreign policy
was meant to support this
 Stalin advocated “socialism in one country”
 Signed Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939
 After Nazis invade Soviet Union in 1940, Stalin joins the
Allies to fight Germans in World War II
 Red Army drives Nazis out of Soviet Union and back to
Berlin where the Germans are defeated in 1945.
 Red Army occupies majority of Eastern Europe during
this time period
 Tensions between Soviets and the West, particularly the
United States, become a growing foreign policy concern
for Stalin
 Cold War

The Purges
Execution of millions of Soviet citizens
 As many as one million communist party
members executed
 Stalin obsessed with disloyalty within the
party
 Generals, Central Committee members,
and Politburo officials purged as a result of
Stalin’s paranoia

Khrushchev
Follows Stalin as General Secretary after
brief power struggle in CPSU
 1956, gives “secret speech” (based on
letter written by Lenin) denouncing
Stalinism, initiates reforms that lead to
“DeStalinization” process in Soviet Union
 Diplomatic and military failure of the
Cuban Missile Crisis leads to his
downfall and removal as General Secretary

Khrushchev’s Reforms
Loosen government censorship of press
 Decentralization of economic decisionmaking
 Restructuring of collective farms
 “Peaceful Coexistence” foreign policy in
Cold War diplomacy with U.S. (Cuban
Missile Crisis threatens this initiative)

Brezhnev
Eventually succeeds Khrushchev as General
Secretary of CPSU and head of state of the
Soviet Union
 Hard-line, conservative member of Communist
party
 Ends reforms initiated by Khrushchev
 “Détente” is dominant foreign policy in Cold War
diplomacy with U.S., this ends with the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan ordered by Brezhnev in
1979

Gorbachev
Takes over as General Secretary in the mid1980’s
 Leads a younger generation of communists
 Educated and more “westernized” then previous
Soviet leaders
 Initiates a wave of reforms that included:

– Glasnost
– Perestroika
– Demokratizatsiia
Glasnost – “Openness”
Open discussion of political, social, and
economic issues
 Allowed for open criticism of government and
government policies
 Gorbachev stressed that the ultimate test of the
party lay in improving the economic well-being
of the country and it’s people

– Open market relations
– Pragmatic economic policy
– Less secretive government
Perestroika – “Restructuring”
Loosened controls of the Communist Party,
allowing group formation in other sectors of
society
 Economic Restructuring

– Modernization from within
– Transfer economic power from central government to
private hands and market economy





Authorization of privately owned companies
Penalties for under-performing state factories
Price reforms
Encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies
Leasing of farm land outside the collective farms
Demokratizatsiia
Gorbachev wanted to insert some democratic
characteristics into the old Soviet structure
 However, he did want to maintain Communist
Party control
 Reforms included:

1. A new Congress of People’s Deputies with directly
elected representatives
2. New position of “President” that was selected by the
Congress


Deputies were often critical of Gorbachev
Increasing levels of displeasure with government from both
liberal and conservative members of Communist Party
Revolution of 1991


August 1991
Led by “Conservatives” (those opposed to, or who
wanted to abandon Gorbachev’s reforms)
– Vice-president
– Head of the KGB
– Top military advisers




Coup failed when popular protests erupted and soldiers
defected rather than support their leaders
Protesters were led by Boris Yeltsin, president elect of
the Russian Republic
Gorbachev restored to power, but by December 1991
eleven Soviet republics declared their independence
Gorbachev officially announces dissolution of Soviet
Union
Boris Yeltsin

Former member of Politburo, removed because his
radical views offended conservatives
– Even more extreme than Gorbachev
Elected president of Russian Republic as result of voting
procedures put in place by Gorbachev
 Emerged as president of the largest republic, Russian
Federation, after Soviet Union dissolves
 Attempts to create a “western-style” democracy
 “Shock Therapy” economic reforms (Immediate market
economy)

– Russian economy does not respond to “shock therapy” reforms
– Conflict erupts between Yeltsin and the Duma
Yeltsin II
Poor president
 Hires and fires numerous prime ministers
 Alcoholic & frequently ill; this leads to
erratic political behavior
 Resigns before the 2000 elections
 Vladimir Putin, Yeltsin’s prime minister,
takes over and wins the 2000 & 2004
elections

VII. Citizens, Society, and the
State
Nationality

Most important single cleavage in Russia

80% of population is Russian
Others include:








Tatars
Ukrainians
Armenians
Chuvashes
Bashkis
Byelorussians
Moldavians
Nationality continued
Nationality cleavages determine the organization
of the country into “federations”, “autonomous
regions”, republics, and provinces
 Many ethnic groups would like to have their
independence, but are enticed by trade benefits
with the Russian government to stay in the
Federation
 Chechnya is the one exception

Chechnya
Primarily Muslim region of Russia
Contains some valuable resources, such as oil
fields
 Independence movement is strong, and Russian
government has struggled to keep Chechnya
region within its control
 Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics
including taking over a heavily attended Russian
theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that
resulted in the deaths of over 350 people,
mostly children


VII. Citizens, Society, and the State
continued
Religion
Russian Orthodox under the tsars
All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions
rule
 Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox
Church to reestablish itself as a signal of a break
from communism and a reflection of old Russian
nationalism
 Other religions represented in very small
percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims,
Protestants)


VII. Citizens, Society, and the State
continued
Social Class

Russian society much more egalitarian than western
societies with a few notable exceptions
– Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members,
and all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within
this group egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance
was given to economic and social background
– Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsin’s regime, often former
KGB and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to
promote business. Struggled in late 1990’s but have emerged as leaders
in Russia after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil.
Putin had to arrest or send into exile CEO’s of these companies for
refusing to pay or underpaying government taxes
Rural vs. Urban Life

73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the
western part of the country

Economic divide between rural and urban residents is
wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent
economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia

Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch
with western culture
Beliefs and Attitudes

Mistrust of Government
– result of treatment and
government secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes

Statism – despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still
expect the state to take active role in their lives

Economic Beliefs – nearly all groups and political factions
favor market reforms, although not all do so enthusiastically

Westernization - “Slavophile vs. Westernizer” – some political
parties emphasize nationalism, Russian interests, and Slavic culture;
others emphasize reform, and integration of Russia into world
economy and global trade
Political Participation








During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore
was close to 100%
Gorbachev’s reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet
Union that followed through to the Russian Federation
In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the
U.S.
Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only
50.3%, but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over
the country
Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections
to less than 65% for the 2004 elections
Lack of participation may be due to Russia’s underdeveloped civil
society
Only 1% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political
party
Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups
VIII. Political Institutions
(Federalism or Unitary)






Although the Soviet Union was highly centralized, it still
maintained a federal government structure
Russian Federation has retained this model, with the
current regime consisting of 89 regions, 21 of which are
ethnically non-Russian by majority
Each region is bound by treaty to the Federation, not all
have officially signed on (Chechnya)
Most regions are called “republics”
Many republics ruled themselves independently, but
Putin has cracked down on this
Putin ended direct election of the 89 regional governors,
they are now nominated by the president and confirmed
by the regional legislatures
IX. Linkage Institutions
Political Parties
 Elections
 Interest Groups
 Media

Political Parties



Began forming after Revolution of 1991
Small, factional
Formed around particular leaders
– “Bloc of General Andrey Nikolaev and Academician Svyaloslav
Fyodorov”
– “Yuri Boldyrev Movement” (“Yabloko”)

Formed around particular issues
– “Party of Pensioners”
– “Agrarian Party of Russia”
– “Women of Russia”
 Political Parties Today (United Russia, Communist Party, Reform
Parties)
United Russia


Founded in April 2001
Merger between “Fatherland All-Russia” Party and the
“United Party of Russia”
– United Party put together by oligarch Boris Berezovsky and other
entrepreneurs to support Putin in the election of 2000




Merger put even more political support behind Putin
United Russia won 221 of the 450 Duma seats in 2004
elections
Putin won re-election in 2004 as the United Russia
candidate
United Russia is hard to define other than that it is proPutin
Communist Party of the Russian
Federation (CPRF)








Communist Party of the old Soviet Union (CPSU)
After 1995 elections held 157 of the 450 Duma seats
After parliamentary election of 2003 only retained 51 of
the 450 Duma seats
Party leader Gennady Zyuganov finished second in the
1996 and 2000 elections, but support for the party
dropped each time, he withdrew from the race in the
2004 election
Party was weakened in 2004 when a breakaway faction
led by Vladimir Tikhonov split from the party
Party is less reformist than other parties, Zyuganov
opposed the reforms initiated by Gorbachev
Party emphasizes central planning and nationalism
Would like to see Russia regain territories it lost after
Soviet Union dissolution
Reformist Parties

Yabloko
– Taken strongest stand for
pro-democracy
– Survived since 1993
– Grigori Yavlinski, leader,
finished 3rd in 2000
presidential election
– Name is acronym for its
three founders, also means
“apple”
– Gained 4.4% of vote in
2003 parliamentary
elections (4 seats) making
it ineligible for proportional
representation

Union of Right Forces
– “Rightest” only in the sense
of seeking truth
– Emphasizes development
of free market
– Supports privatization of
industry
– Had 29 seats in Duma prior
to 2003
– After 2003 elections only
won 3 seats (less than 5%
of the vote)
Liberal Democratic Party


Controversial party
Headed by Vladimir Zhirinovsky
–
–
–
–
–


Extreme nationalist
Anti-semitic
Sexist
Attacks reformist leaders and disliked Yeltsin
Said he would use nuclear weapons on Japan if he were elected
Party reformulated as “Zhirinovsky’s Bloc” for 2000
presidential election, he received 2.7% of vote
Party did receive about 11% of vote in 2003 Duma
elections (won 37 seats)
Elections

3 types
– Referendum
– Duma Elections
– Presidential Elections
1993: Year of Elections – Year of
Transition




March 1993 parliament attempts to impeach Yeltsin
Legislative-led coup tries to usurp control of the
government
Yeltsin dissolves legislature, calls for new elections
Although opposition leaders were arrested, Yeltsin’s
opponents won the majority in the new legislature
– Radical Vladimir Zhirinovsky’s Liberal Party did surprisingly well

Despite losing control of the legislature Yeltsin was able
to get approval for the new constitution: Constitution
of 1993
Constitution of 1993

Created a three-branch government
– President & Prime Minister
– Lower legislative house (DUMA)
– Constitutional Court

Referendum - allowed for president to call for
national referenda by popular vote on important issues
 Yeltsin’s first referendum was on his job performance
 Second was for approval of the constitution itself
Interest Groups

Oligarchy
 Tied closely with the Yeltsin
family
 By mid-1990s monopolized
Russian industry and built
huge fortunes
 Boris Berezovsky – admitted
that he and six other
entrepreneurs controlled over
half the GNP
 Dominant in oil, media, and
television industries
 Helped Yeltsin win 1996
election
 Created and financed the
Unity Party in 2000 and got
Vladimir Putin elected

Russian Mafia
 Larger and perhaps even
more influential than the
oligarchy
 Initially involved in
underworld crime
 During Revolution of 1991
gained control of businesses,
natural resources, and banks
 Involved in money
laundering, drugs,
prostitution, and business
payoffs (“protection money”)
 Includes former members of
the KGB
Interest Groups II






Huge fortunes made by oligarchs and the mafia offend the equality
of opportunity principle of the Russian people
In the past, lawlessness in Russia has been dealt with by repressive,
authoritarian rule, and these groups represent a threat to the new
democracy
Putin arrested television magnate Vladimir Gusinsky for corruption
and his company was given to a state-owned monopoly
In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of
the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian
government was consolidating power
Yukos was slapped with massive penalties and additional taxes,
forcing it into bankruptcy
Russian Media – a linkage institution with close ties to
both the state and the oligarchy, has been manipulated
by dominant political and interest groups to pursue their
own causes
X. Institutions of Government
A. President & Prime Minister

Duties of the President
 Appoints the prime minister and cabinet – Duma must
approve prime minister’s appointment, but if they reject the
president’s nominee three times, the president may dissolve the
Duma
 Issue decrees that have force of law – cabinet has great
deal of power, Duma can not censure cabinet according to
Constitution of 1993
 Dissolve the Duma – done by Yeltsin during legislative coup
attempt of 1993
– Prime Minister: relationship between PM and President not
exactly clear, but with no vice-president if anything happens to
president the PM assumes the office of president
B. Bicameral Legislature

Duma
– Lower House
– 450 deputies
– Half chosen by proportional
representation
– Half by single-member
district plurality
 Passes Bills
 Approves Budgets
 Confirms president’s
political appointments

Federation Council
– Upper House
– Two members elected from
each of the 89 regions of
the federation
– Power to delay legislation
 On paper Federation
Council can change
boundaries of republics,
ratify use of armed forces,
and appoint and remove
judges. These powers
have yet to be use
however
C. Judiciary

Supreme Court
– Created by 1993 Constitution
– Serves as final court of appeals in criminal &
civil cases

Constitutional Court
– Created by 1993 Constitution
– 19 members
– Appointed by president and confirmed by
Federation Council
D. Military





Was a source of strength during the Soviet era, 19451991
Once stood at over 4 million men
Generally did not get involved in politics, this continues
under the Russian Federation
One prominent general, Alexander Lebed, gained
political following before the 1996 election and had to be
coopted by Yeltsin in order for Yeltsin to win reelection
Suffered significant humiliation from the late 1980’s to
early 21st century
– Withdrawal from Afghanistan
– Defeated by Chechen guerrillas in 1994-1996 conflict
– Often ill-equipped, Russian soldiers had to feed themselves and
went unpaid for months in late 1990’s and early 21st century
XI. Public Policy/Current Issues

The Economy
– At the heart of the Soviet demise in 1991
– Perestroika reforms – market economy programs inserted into
traditional centralized state ownership design
– “Shock Therapy reforms” – created chaotic conditions that
resulted in a small group of entrepreneurs running the economy
– In 1997 economy collapsed when government defaulted on
billions of dollars of debts
– Russian stock market lost half its value, threatened global
markets as well
– Ruble lost value rapidly, by 2002 it took more than 30,000 rubles
to equal one dollar
– The overall economy did see slight improvements in 1999–2000
– In 2004 the economy grew 7%, and standards of living
improved, the first real signs that the Russian economy was
starting to thrive again
Foreign Policy

Relations with Former
Republics
– Confederation of Independent
States (CIS)
– Russia is the clear leader of
organization
– Is not nearly as successful,
economically and politically, as
the EU
– Bonded together by trade
agreements
– Tensions of nationality issues
– Putin’s meddling in Ukrainian
election of 2004 was cause for
concern

Relations with the
World
– Adjustment period for
Russia following Cold War
and loss of superpower
status
– Offered aid and foreign
investment by U.S.
– Accepted into the G-7 (now
known as G-8)
– UN Security Council
permanent member
– Russia set to join the WTO
in July 2007