TEN STEPS to
ADVANCED READING
SECOND EDITION
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SECOND EDITION
TEN STEPS
to
ADVANCED
READING
John Langan
© 2013 Townsend Press
Chapter 9
CRITICAL READING
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Skilled readers are those who can recognize an
author’s point and the support for that point.
Critical readers are those who can evaluate an
author’s support for a point and determine whether
that support is solid or not.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
This chapter will extend your ability to read critically
in three ways:
l
Separating fact from opinion
l
Detecting propaganda
l
Recognizing errors in reasoning
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact
A fact is information that can be proved true through
This evidence may be physical
objective evidence.
proof or the spoken or written testimony of
witnesses.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is a statement that contains several facts. The
facts can be checked for accuracy and thus proved
true.
Abraham Lincoln, whose nickname was
“Honest Abe,” had no formal education or
religion; he was president of the United States
from 1861 to 1865 at a salary of $25,000 a
year.
You can look up in historical documents these facts
about Lincoln.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is another statement of fact.
At least four out of five adults will experience
lower back pain at some point in their lives.
Extensive medical research confirms that this
statement is true.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Opinion
An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that
cannot be objectively proved true. As a result, it is
open to question.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is a statement that is an opinion:
With the exception only of George
Washington, Abraham Lincoln was the
greatest leader our country has ever had.
Many people might agree with this statement, but
others would not. There is no way to prove it
definitively.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
With the exception only of George
Washington, Abraham Lincoln was the
greatest leader our country has ever had.
Greatest is a value word, a word we use to express
a value judgment. Value words are signals that an
opinion is being expressed. By their very nature,
these words represent opinions, not facts.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is another opinion:
The best treatment for lower back pain is
physical therapy.
There is no consensus in the scientific community
that this is true. Many treatments other than physical
therapy—medication, exercise, surgery, or
acupuncture, for example—are recommended by
experts.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
Five Points about Fact and Opinion
1 Statements of fact may be found to be untrue.
Facts can turn out to be errors, not facts. It is not
unusual for evidence to show that a “fact” is not
example, it was once considered to be a
reallyFor
true.
fact that the world was flat, but that “fact” turned
out to be an error.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment)
often represent opinions.
Examples of Value Words
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
2 Value words
Value words are generally subjective, not
objective. While factual statements report on
observed reality, subjective statements evaluate or
interpret
reality. the observation that it is cloudy
For example,
outside is objective. The statement that the
weather is bad, however, is subjective, an
evaluation of reality. (Some people—for example,
farmers whose crops need water—consider rain to
be good weather.)
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
3 The words should and ought to often signal
opinions.
Those words introduce what some people think
should, or ought to, be done. Other people may
disagree.
Examples
• Adults who molest young children ought to be
put to death.
• Women with children should not run for public
office.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
4 Don’t mistake widely held opinions for facts.
Much information that sounds factual is really
opinion.
An ad may claim that a particular automobile is
“the most economical car on the road today,” a
statement that at firstBut
seems
what factual.
is meant by
economical? If the car offers the most miles per
gallon but the worst record for expensive repairs,
you might not agree that it’s economical.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of
fact and opinion.
Our job is to draw upon existing fact and opinion
The reality is that
and to arrive at an informed opinion.
most of what matters in life is very complex and
cannot be separated into simple fact and opinion.
Our challenge always is to arrive at the best
possible informed opinion
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact and Opinion in Reading
In general, textbook authors try to be as factual
On the other hand, many essays,
as possible.
editorials, political speeches, and advertisements
may contain facts, but those facts are often
carefully selected to back up the authors’ opinions.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
A. In 1828, New York became the first state to restrict
abortion; by 1900 it had been made illegal throughout the
country.
B. Legalized abortion is the main cause of sexual
misbehavior in the United States.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact?
A. In 1828, New York became the first state to restrict
abortion; by 1900 it had been made illegal throughout the
country.
Statement A presents facts that could be looked up
in historical records.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is opinion?
A. In 1828, New York became the first state to restrict
abortion; by 1900 it had been made illegal throughout the
country.
B. Legalized abortion is the main cause of sexual
misbehavior in the United States.
Statement B is an opinion. Some people would
argue, for example, that sexual misbehavior existed
before abortion became an option.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?
Which is fact and opinion?
A. Today’s computer-animated films are not as good as the
old hand-drawn animated ones.
B. The first American animated feature film was Snow White
and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney
studio.
C. The 1940 animated film Fantasia, which combined
animation with classical music, is the most imaginative
movie ever made.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact?
B. The first American animated feature film was Snow White
and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney
studio.
Statement B is a fact that can be confirmed by
checking film records.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is opinion?
A. Today’s computer-animated films are not as good as the
old hand-drawn animated ones.
B. The first American animated feature film was Snow White
and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney
studio.
Statement A is an opinion. Many people might
disagree. The value word good is a clue.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which is fact and opinion?
A. Today’s computer-animated films are not as good as the
old hand-drawn animated ones.
B. The first American animated feature film was Snow White
and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney
studio.
The 1940 animated film Fantasia, which combined
animation with classical music, is the most imaginative
movie ever made.
The first part of C is a fact that can be confirmed in
movie records and by watching the film. The second
part is an opinion; other people might nominate some
other film as the most imaginative one ever made.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are
constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,”
“Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.”
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are
constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,”
“Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.”Often, they
lack adequate factual support for their points, so
they appeal to our emotions by using propaganda
techniques.
Part of being a critical reader is having the
ability to recognize these propaganda techniques
for the emotional fluff that they are.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
This section will introduce you to six common
propaganda techniques:
l
Bandwagon
l
Plain Folks
l
Testimonial
l
Name Calling
Transfer
l
Glittering
Generalities
There are other propaganda techniques, but
They
all use emotional
these six are among the most
common.
appeals to distract from the fact they are not
providing solid evidence to support their points.
l
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
1 Bandwagon
The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a
product or support a certain issue because, in effect,
“everybody else is doing it.”
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Here are two examples of ads that use the
bandwagon appeal:
• An ad announces a sale giving us a chance to
buy the most popular SUV in America today.
• In a soft drink ad, a crowd of young people follow
a young woman on skates who is drinking a diet
soda.
The ads imply that if you don’t jump on the
bandwagon and get on the winning side, the
parade will pass you by.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
A. A beautiful woman in a slinky red dress is shown driving
the sponsor’s car.
B. An ad for a weight-loss pill features an attractive couple
who are “just two of the millions” who have decided to get
their bodies back with the new diet formula.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?
A. A beautiful woman in a slinky red dress is shown driving
the sponsor’s car.
3 B. An ad for a weight-loss pill features an attractive couple
who are “just two of the millions” who have decided to get
their bodies back with the new diet formula.
The phrase just two of the millions alerts us to the
bandwagon technique. The ad suggests that you, too,
should use this pill the way millions of others have.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
2 Testimonial
The idea behind the testimonial approach is that
the testimony of famous people influences the
viewers that admire these people.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Here are two examples of real ads that use the
appeal of testimonials:
• A famous actor is shown coping with a swarm of
photographers in order to get a bottle of his
favorite beer.
• A popular TV talk show host appears in an ad
that indicates she uses a certain credit card.
The fame of the actor and of the talk show host
is intended to influence us to use the products they
are endorsing.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Which ad below uses a testimonial?
A. Numerous people crowd around the department store
door, waiting for the store to open.
B. A famous actress says that she loves to use a certain
hair coloring.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Which ad below uses a testimonial?
A. Numerous people crowd around the department store
door, waiting for the store to open.
3 B. A famous actress says that she loves to use a certain
hair coloring.
B is a testimonial because a “famous actress” is
endorsing the product.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
3 Transfer
The most common type of propaganda technique
is transfer, in which products or candidates try to
associate themselves with something that people
admire or love.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
The picture you saw at the beginning of this
section is an example of transfer.
The candidate is hoping that the positive feelings
we have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and
the patriotism stirred in us by the American flag and
the U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get
us to vote for him.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Which ad below uses transfer?
A. A beer company sponsors the Daytona 500 auto race
with the line “America’s Race and America’s Beer.”
B. A picture of a can of soda bears the caption, “You know
it’s got to be good.”
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
Which ad below uses transfer?
3 A. A beer company sponsors the Daytona 500 auto race
with the line “America’s Race and America’s Beer.”
B. A picture of a can of soda bears the caption, “You know
it’s got to be good.”
The word America’s signals the transfer technique.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
4 Plain Folks
In the plain folks technique, powerful people
Political
present themselves as ordinary, average
citizens.
candidates often use the plain folks technique.
Similarly, the presidents of some companies appear
in their own ads, trying to show that their giant
corporations are just family businesses run by
ordinary folks.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Here are two examples of real ads that have
used the appeal of plain folks:
• Average-looking American kids are shown at
home trying and enjoying a cereal.
• The president of a poultry company talks to us as
if he’s an everyday shopper looking for a quick,
easy meal to make, just like us.
In the first ad, the cereal company wants to
show us that its product is enjoyed by average kids
just like ours. In the second ad, the president of the
poultry company wants us to see that he’s just an
average guy who shops for dinner just like we do.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
A. A famous basketball player wears the sponsor’s
sneakers.
B. The president of a car company is shown playing on the
lawn with his young children. He says, “I’m head of this
company, but I’m also a dad who is concerned about
automobile safety.”
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?
A. A famous basketball player wears the sponsor’s
sneakers.
3 B. The president of a car company is shown playing on the
lawn with his young children. He says, “I’m head of this
company, but I’m also a dad who is concerned about
automobile safety.”
The president of the company is showing that he is a
regular family guy.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
5 Name Calling
Name calling is the use of emotionally loaded
language or negative comments to turn people
against a product or political candidate or cause.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Here are two examples of name calling taken
from real life:
• In the 1950s, during the early days of the “cold
war” with the Soviet Union, an exaggerated
concern about communism in this country
brought charges of un-Americanism against
• many.
During a taste test, consumers described the
other leading brand of spaghetti sauce as “too
salty” and “thin and tasteless.”
Saying someone is “un-American” is name
calling. So is saying the sauce is “thin and
tasteless.”
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Which ad below uses name calling?
A. A political ad implies that a candidate who does not
support the war in Afghanistan is anti-American.
B. A pastor describes how when his house burned down,
his home insurance company responded quickly and
helpfully.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Which ad below uses name calling?
3
A. A political ad implies that a candidate who does not
support the war in Afghanistan is anti-American.
B. A pastor describes how when his house burned down,
his home insurance company responded quickly and
helpfully.
Suggesting someone is anti-American for such a reason
is name calling.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda
6 Glittering Generalities
A glittering generality is an important-sounding
but unspecific claim about some product, candidate,
or cause. The claim uses fine and virtuous words but
says nothing definite.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Here are two examples of real ads that use
glittering generalities:
• A room deodorizer exclaims, “Experience the
freshness!”
• A canned-food ad boasts of “nutrition that works.”
The statements Experience the freshness
and nutrition that works sound important but tell
us nothing about the products.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
A. A car ad claims, “It just feels right.”
B. A movie star looks over her dark sunglasses and says,
“Maybe you can’t be a celebrity. But you can look like one
in glasses like mine.”
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?
3 A. A car ad claims, “It just feels right.”
B. A movie star looks over her dark sunglasses and says,
“Maybe you can’t be a celebrity. But you can look like one
in glasses like mine.”
The statement in the car ad tells us nothing definite
about the car.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the
place of the real support needed in an argument.
The result is a poorly supported argument.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
A valid point is based
on a rock-like foundation
of solid support.
A fallacious point is
based on a house of
cards that offers no real
support at all.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
You have already seen two common fallacies that were
discussed in Chapter 8, “Argument”:
l
Changing the subject distracts us from the issue
by presenting irrelevant support that actually has
nothing to do with the argument.
l
Hasty generalization is a fallacy in which a point
has inadequate support. Drawing a conclusion
based on insufficient evidence is the same as
making a hasty generalization.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
This section will introduce you to six other common
fallacies: Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular
Reasoning
l Personal Attack
l
l
Straw Man
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
l
False Cause
l
False Comparison
l
Either-Or
In all of these fallacies, a point is argued, but no
true support is offered for that point.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular Reasoning
Part of a point cannot reasonably be used as
The fallacy of including such
evidence to support it.
illogical evidence is called circular reasoning or
begging the question.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is a simple example of such reasoning:
• Alan Gordon is a great manager because he is
so wonderful at managing.
The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful at
managing”) is really the same as the conclusion
(“Alan Gordon is a great manager”). No real
reasons have been given—the statement has
merely repeated itself.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
• Alan Gordon is a great manager
he is so wonderful at
managing.
The supporting reason (“he is so wonderful at
managing”) is really the same as the conclusion
(“Alan Gordon is a great manager”). No real
reasons have been given—the statement has
merely repeated itself.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
A. Exercise is healthful because it improves your well-being.
B. Exercise is healthful because it reduces blood pressure,
high cholesterol, and body fat.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy?
3 A. Exercise is healthful because it improves your well-being.
B. Exercise is healthful because it reduces blood pressure,
high cholesterol, and body fat.
In effect, item A says that exercise is healthful because
it improves your health. The two statements mean the
same thing.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Personal Attack
This fallacy involves an unfair personal attack
It
on an individual rather than on his or her position.
ignores the issue under discussion and
concentrates instead on the character of the
opponent.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Here is an example of personal attack:
• That woman should not be on a church
committee. She just got divorced for the second
time.
A woman’s divorce or divorces have nothing to
do with her ability to contribute to a church
committee.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
A. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to
resign. She cursed at a student last week.
B. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to
resign. One of her sons is gay.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy?
A. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to
resign. She cursed at a student last week.
3 B. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to
resign. One of her sons is gay.
Whether her son is gay or not has nothing to do with
the guidance counselor’s ability to perform her job.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Straw Man
The straw man fallacy suggests that an
opponent favors an obviously unpopular cause—
when the opponent really doesn’t support anything
of the kind.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Here is an example of straw man:
• Senator Crosley supports a bill to limit the
purchase of handguns. She wants to take guns
out of the hands of law-abiding citizens and put
them into the hands of criminals!
Senator Crosley does not, of course, want to put
guns into the hands of criminals. But her opponent
wants voters to think that she does and so
misrepresents and falsifies her position.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
A. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget.
They want our students to fall behind students in
developing nations like India and China.
B. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget.
They oppose the salary increases for the superintendent
and his staff.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy?
3
A. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget.
They want our students to fall behind students in
developing nations like India and China.
B. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget.
They oppose the salary increases for the superintendent
and his staff.
There may be valid reasons to vote against a new
school budget. It is unlikely the neighbors would want
the students to fall behind.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Cause
The fallacy of false cause occurs when one
assumes that because event B follows event A,
event B was caused by event A.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Consider this argument:
• My favorite TV show was moved to a different
time slot this season. No wonder it’s now getting
canceled.
But there could be reasons other than the move
to a new time slot for the program’s getting
canceled. Perhaps the show has less competent
writers; perhaps a favorite actor has left the show.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
• My favorite TV show was moved to a different
time slot this season. No wonder it’s now getting
canceled.
It’s easy but dangerous
to assume that just because A came before B, A
caused B.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
A. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist.
That’s why I’ve gained a lot of weight.
B. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist. If
I’m not careful, I’ll eat too many burgers, shakes, and
fries.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause?
3
A. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist.
That’s why I’ve gained a lot of weight.
B. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist. If
I’m not careful, I’ll eat too many burgers, shakes, and
fries.
There could be reasons for weight gain besides the
power of commercials. Stress, lack of sleep, depression,
and thyroid problems are just a few of the many
possible causes.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Comparison
In the error in reasoning known as false
comparison, the assumption is that two things are
more alike than they really are.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Consider this argument:
• When your brother was your age, he was
already married and raising a family. So why
aren’t you married, Dean?
To judge whether or not this is a false
comparison, consider how the two situations are
alike and how they differ.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
• When your brother was your age, he was
already married and raising a family. So why
aren’t you married, Dean?
The situations are similar in that both involve
persons of the same age.
But they are different in that Dean is an
individual with choices and goals that are different
from those of his brother. (For example, perhaps
Dean wants to continue his education or focus on
his career, or perhaps he has not met the right
person yet.)
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
• When your brother was your age, he was
already married and raising a family. So why
aren’t you married, Dean?
The differences in this case are more important
than the similarities, making it a false comparison.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
A. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so I don’t see what’s
wrong with my smoking marijuana.
B. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so I’m probably going
to have a mood disorder some day.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison?
3 A. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so I don’t see what’s
wrong with my smoking marijuana.
B. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so I’m probably going
to have a mood disorder some day.
The situations are very different. An anti-depressant is a
doctor-prescribed medication. Generally speaking,
marijuana is not.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
Either-Or
It is often wrong to assume that there are only
two sides to a question. Offering only two choices
when more actually exist is an either-or fallacy.
While some issues have only two sides, most have
several.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Consider this argument:
• Women must decide whether they want to have
a career or have children.
This argument fails to allow for other
alternatives, such as working part-time or sharing
child-rearing responsibilities with a partner.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
A. You’re ignoring my cat. You must be angry with me about
something.
B. You’re ignoring my cat. You must hate all animals.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or
Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy?
A. You’re ignoring my cat. You must be angry with me about
something.
3 B. You’re ignoring my cat. You must hate all animals.
There could be many reasons (other than hating all
animals) that the person is ignoring the cat. For
example, the person could be stressed about a situation
at work or just focused on something else.
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading