The Fat-Soluble
Vitamins
A, D, E, and K
The Fat-Soluble
Vitamins
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
• Retinoids and carotenoids
–Vitamin A activity
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
• Retinol-binding protein (RBP)
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
• Roles in the body
–Vitamin A in vision
• Roles in the body
–Vitamin A in protein synthesis
and cell differentiation
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
• Roles in the body
–Vitamin A in reproduction and
growth
–Beta-carotene as an antioxidant
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
• Recommendations
–Retinol activity equivalents (RAE)
Vitamin A And
Beta-Carotene
• Vitamin A in foods
–The colors of
vitamin A foods
–Vitamin A-poor
fast foods
–Vitamin A-rich
liver
In Summary
• Other names
–Retinol
–Retinal
–Retinoic acid
–Precursors are carotenoids such
as beta-carotene
• 2001 RDA
–Men: 900 g RAE/day
–Women: 700 g RAE/day
In Summary
• Upper level for adults:
3000 g/day
• Chief functions in the body
–Vision
–Maintenance of cornea, epithelial
cells, mucous membranes, skin
–Bone and tooth growth
–Reproduction
–Immunity
In Summary
• Significant sources
–Retinol: fortified milk, cheese,
cream, butter, fortified
margarine, eggs, liver
–Beta-carotene: spinach and
other dark leafy greens; broccoli,
deep orange fruits (apricots,
cantaloupe) and vegetables
(squash, carrots, sweet
potatoes, pumpkin)
In Summary
• Deficiency disease:
hypovitaminosis A
• Deficiency symptoms
–Night blindness, corneal drying
(xerosis), triangular gray spots
on eye (Bitot’s spots), softening
of the cornea (keratomalacia),
and corneal degeneration and
blindness (xerophthalmia)
In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
(continued)
–Impaired immunity (infections)
–Plugging of hair follicles with
keratin, forming white lumps
(hyperkeratosis)
Deficiency Symptom:
Keratinization
In Summary
• Toxicity disease:
hypervitaminosis A
• Chronic toxicity symptoms
–Increased activity of osteoclasts
causing reduced bone density
–Liver abnormalities
–Birth defects
In Summary
• Acute toxicity symptoms
–Blurred vision
–Nausea, vomiting, vertigo
–Increase of pressure inside skull,
mimicking brain tumor
–Headaches
Vitamin D
• Other names
–Calciferol
–1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D
(calcitriol)
–Animal version: vitamin D3 or
cholecalciferol
–Plant version: vitamin D2 or
ergocalciferol
–Precursor is the body’s own
cholesterol
Vitamin D
• 1997 adequate intake (AI)
–19-50 years: 5 g/day
–51-70 years: 10 g/day
–more than 70 years: 15 g/day
• Upper level for adults:
50 g/day
Vitamin D
• Chief functions in the body
–Mineralization of bones (raises
blood calcium and phosphorus by
increasing absorption from
digestive tract, withdrawing
calcium from bones, stimulating
retention by kidneys)
Vitamin D
• Significant sources
–Synthesized in the body with the
help of sunlight
–Fortified milk, margarine, butter,
cereals, and chocolate mixes
–Veal, beef, egg yolks, liver, fatty
fish (herring, salmon, sardines)
and their oils
Vitamin D
• Deficiency
diseases
–Rickets
–Osteomalacia
Vitamin D
• Deficiency symptoms: rickets
in children
–Inadequate calcification,
resulting in misshapen bones
(bowing of legs)
–Enlargement of ends of long
bones (knees, wrists)
–Deformities of ribs (bowed, with
beads or knobs)
Vitamin D
• Deficiency symptoms: rickets
in children (continued)
–Delayed closing of fontanel,
resulting in rapid enlargement of
head
Vitamin D
• Deficiency symptoms: rickets
in children (continued)
–Lax muscles resulting in
protrusion of abdomen
–Muscle spasms
• Deficiency symptoms:
osteomalacia in adults
–Loss of calcium, resulting in soft,
flexible, brittle, and deformed
bones
Vitamin D
• Deficiency symptoms:
osteomalacia in adults (cont.)
–Progressive weakness
–Pain in pelvis, lower back, and
legs
• Toxicity disease:
hypervitaminosis D
Vitamin D
• Toxicity symptoms
–Elevated blood calcium
–Calcification of soft tissues
(blood vessels, kidneys, heart,
lungs, tissues around joints)
–Frequent urination
Vitamin E
• Other name: alpha-tocopherol
• 2000 RDA
– Adults: 15 mg/day
• Upper level for adults:
1000 mg/day
• Chief function in the body
– Antioxidant (stabilization of cell
membranes, regulation of oxidation
reactions, protection of
polyunsaturated fatty acids and
vitamin A)
Vitamin E
Vitamin E
• Significant sources
–Polyunsaturated
plant oils
(margarine, salad
dressings,
shortenings)
–Leafy green
vegetables, wheat
germ, whole grains,
liver, egg yolks,
nuts, seeds
Vitamin E
• Easily destroyed by heat and
oxygen
• Deficiency symptoms
–Red blood cell breakage
–Nerve damage
• Toxicity symptoms
–Augments the effects of
anticlotting medication
Vitamin K
• Other names
–Phylloquinone
–Menaquinone
–Menadione
–Naphthoquinone
• 2001 AI
–Men: 120 g/day
–Women: 90 g/day
Vitamin K
• Chief functions in the body
–Synthesis of blood-clotting
proteins and bone proteins that
regulate blood calcium
Vitamin K
• Significant
sources
–Bacterial
synthesis in the
digestive tract
–Liver
–Leafy green
vegetables,
cabbage-type
vegetables
–Milk
Vitamin K
• Deficiency symptoms
–Hemorrhaging
• Toxicity symptoms
–None known
The Fat-Soluble
Vitamins In Summary
• Interactions with each other
• Interactions with minerals
Antioxidant Nutrients
In Disease Prevention
• Free radicals and disease
–Oxidative stress
• Defending against free radicals
–Oxidants and antioxidants
Antioxidant Nutrients
In Disease Prevention
Antioxidant Nutrients
In Disease Prevention
• Defending against cancer
• Defending against cardiovascular
disease
Antioxidant Nutrients
In Disease Prevention
• Foods, supplements, or both?
–Prooxidants
Water And The
Major Minerals
Water And The
Body Fluids
• Functions of water:
–Transport
–Structural support for molecules
–Participates in metabolic reactions
–Solvent
–Lubricant
–Body temperature regulation
–Maintains blood volume
Water And The
Body Fluids
• Water balance and recommended
intakes
–Intracellular fluid
–Extracellular fluid
•Interstitial fluid
One Cell
And Its
Associated
Fluids
Water And The
Body Fluids
• Water balance and recommended
intakes
–Water intake
•Dehydration
•Water intoxication
Water And The
Body Fluids
• Water balance and recommended
intakes
–Water sources
–Water losses
–Water recommendations
• Water balance and recommended
intakes
–Health effects of water
•Hard water vs. soft water
•Bottled water
How The Body Regulates Blood Volume
Fluid And
Electrolyte Balance
• Dissociation of salt in water
–Ions
•Cations
•Anions
–Electrolyte solution
Water Dissolves Salts
And Follows Electrolytes
Fluid And
Electrolyte Balance
• Electrolytes attract water
• Water follows electrolytes
–Solutes
–Osmosis
–Osmotic pressure
• Vegetables
“sweat” when
sprinkled with
salt
• Raisins plump
up when
immersed in
water
Fluid And
Electrolyte Balance
• Proteins regulate flow of fluids and
ions
• Regulation of fluid and electrolyte
balance
Fluid And
Electrolyte Imbalance
• Sodium and chloride most easily
lost
• Different solutes lost by different
routes
Fluid And
Electrolyte Imbalance
• Replacing lost
fluids and
electrolytes
–Oral rehydration
therapy (ORT)
Acid-Base Balance
• pH
Acid-Base Balance
• Regulation by the buffers
–Bicarbonate
–Carbonic acid
• Regulation by the lungs
• Regulation by the kidneys
The Minerals An Overview
The Minerals An Overview
• Inorganic elements
• The body’s handling of minerals
The Minerals An Overview
• Variable bioavailability
–Binders
•Phytates
•Oxalates
The Minerals An Overview
• Nutrient interactions
• Varied roles
Sodium
• Roles in the body
–Principal extracellular cation
Sodium
• Hypertension
–Salt sensitivity
• Osteoporosis
• Foods
Sodium
Sodium: In Summary
• 1989 estimated minimum
requirement for adults:
500 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Maintains normal fluid and electrolyte
balance
– Assists in nerve impulse transmission
and muscle contraction
Sodium: In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
– Muscle cramps, mental apathy, loss of
appetite
• Toxicity symptoms
– Edema, acute hypertension
• Significant source
– Table salt, soy sauce
– Moderate amounts in meats, milks,
breads, and vegetables
– Large amounts in processed foods
Chloride
• Chlorine (Cl2) vs. chloride ion (Cl-)
• Roles in body
–Principal extracellular anion
Chloride: In Summary
• 1989 estimated minimum
requirement for adults:
750 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Maintains normal fluid and electrolyte
balance
– Part of hydrochloric acid found in the
stomach, necessary for proper
digestion
Chloride: In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
– Do not occur under normal
circumstances
• Toxicity symptom
– Vomiting
• Significant sources
– Table salt, soy sauce
– Moderate amounts in meats, milks,
eggs
– Large amounts in processed foods
Potassium
• Principal intracellular cation
Potassium: In Summary
• 1989 estimated minimum
requirement for adults:
2000 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Maintains normal fluid and electrolyte
balance
– Facilitates many reactions
– Supports cell integrity
– Assists in nerve impulse transmission
and muscle contractions
Potassium: In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
– Muscular weakness
– Paralysis
– Confusion
• Toxicity symptoms
– Muscular weakness
– Vomiting
– If given into a vein, can stop the
heart
Potassium: In Summary
• Significant
sources
– All whole foods
– Meats, milks,
fruits, vegetables,
grains, legumes
Calcium
Balance
Calcium
• Calcium rigor vs. calcium tetany
Calcium
Calcium: In Summary
• 1997 adequate intake (AI)
–Adults 19-50 years: 100 mg/day
–Adults 51 and older:
1200 mg/day
• Upper level for adults:
2500 mg/day
Calcium: In Summary
• Chief functions in the body
–Mineralization of bones and teeth
–Involved in muscle contraction
and relaxation, nerve
functioning, blood clotting
–Blood pressure, immune
defenses
Calcium: In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
–Stunted growth in children
–Bone loss (osteoporosis) in
adults
Calcium: In Summary
• Toxicity symptoms
–Constipation
–Increased risk of urinary stone
formation and kidney
dysfunction
–Interference with absorption of
other minerals
Calcium: In Summary
• Significant
sources
–Milk and milk
products
–Small fish (with
bones)
–Tofu (bean
curd), greens
(broccoli,
chard), legumes
Phosphorus
• 1997 RDA for adults:
700 mg/day
• Upper level for adults (19-70
years): 4000 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
–Mineralization of bones and teeth
–Part of every cell
–Important in genetic material,
part of phospholipids
Phosphorus
• Chief functions in the body
(continued)
–Used in energy transfer and in
buffer systems that maintain
acid-base balance
• Deficiency symptoms
–Muscular weakness, bone pain
Phosphorus
• Toxicity symptoms
–Calcification of nonskeletal
tissues, particularly the kidneys
• Significant sources
–All animal tissues (meat, fish,
poultry, eggs, milk)
Magnesium
• 1997 RDA
– Men (19-30 years): 400 mg/day
– Women (19-30 years): 310 mg/day
• Upper level for adults: 350 mg
nonfood magnesium/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Bone mineralization, building of
protein, enzyme action, normal
muscle contraction, nerve impulse
transmission, maintenance of teeth,
and functioning of immune system
Magnesium
• Deficiency symptoms
– Weakness
– Confusion
– If extreme, convulsions, bizarre
muscle movements (especially of eye
and face muscles), hallucinations,
and difficulty in swallowing
– In children, growth failure
Magnesium
• Toxicity symptoms
– From nonfood sources only
– Diarrhea, alkalosis, dehydration
• Significant sources
– Nuts, legumes
– Whole grains
– Dark green vegetables
– Seafood
– Chocolate, cocoa
Sulfur
• Roles
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• Bone development and
disintegration
–Cortical bone
–Trabecular bone
Healthy vs. Osteoporotic Trabecular Bones
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• Bone development and
disintegration
–Bone density
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• Age and bone calcium
• Maximizing bone mass
Osteoporosis And Calcium
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• Minimizing bone loss
• Gender and hormones
• Genetics and ethnicity
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• Physical
activity and
body weight
• Smoking
and alcohol
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• Dietary calcium is the key to
prevention
• Other nutrients play a supporting
role
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
Osteoporosis
And Calcium
• A perspective on supplements
–Antacids
–Bone meal
–Oyster shell
–Dolomite (limestone)
The Trace Minerals
The Trace Minerals
The Trace Minerals
• Food sources
• Deficiencies
• Toxicities
• Interactions
Iron
• Ferrous (Fe++)
–Reduced
• Ferric (Fe+++)
–Oxidized
Iron Absorption
Iron: Heme vs. Nonheme
Iron
• Factors enhance nonheme iron
absorption
–MFP factor
–Vitamin C
–Citric acid from
foods
Iron
• Factors enhance nonheme iron
absorption
–Lactic acid from foods
–HCl from stomach
–Sugars
Iron
• Factors inhibit nonheme iron
absorption
–Phytates
–Fibers
–Oxalates
Iron
• Factors inhibit nonheme iron
absorption
–Calcium
–Phosphorus
–EDTA
–Tannic acid
Iron Recycling
Iron
• High risk for iron deficiency
–Women in their reproductive
years
–pregnant women
–Infants and young children
–Teenagers
Iron
• Stages of iron deficiency
–Iron stores diminish
–Transport iron decreases
–Hemoglobin production declines
• Both size and
color are normal
in these blood
cells
• Blood cells in
iron-deficiency
anemia are
small and pale
because they
contain less
hemoglobin
Iron
• Contamination
iron
• Iron
supplements
Iron: In Summary
• 2001 RDA
– Men: 8 mg/day
– Women (19-50 years): 18 mg/day
– Women (51+ years): 8 mg/day
• Upper level for adults: 45 mg/day
Iron: In Summary
• Chief functions in the body
– Part of the protein hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen in the blood
– Part of the protein myoglobin in
muscles, which makes oxygen
available for muscle contraction
– Necessary for the utilization of energy
as part of the cells’ metabolic
machinery
Iron: In Summary
• Significant sources
– Red meats, fish, poultry, shellfish,
eggs
– Legumes, dried fruits
Iron: In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
– Anemia: weakness, fatigue,
headaches
– Impaired work performance and
cognitive function
– Impaired immunity
– Pale skin, nailbeds, mucous
membranes, and palm creases
– Concave nails
– Inability to regulate body
temperature
– Pica
Iron: In Summary
• Toxicity symptoms
– GI distress
– Iron overload: infections, fatigue,
joint pain, skin pigmentation, organ
damage
Zinc
• Roles
–Metalloenzymes
• Absorption
–Metallothionein
Zinc
• Enteropancreatic circulation
Zinc
• Zinc supplementation
Zinc: In Summary
• 2001 RDA
– Men: 11 mg/day
– Women: 8 mg/day
• Upper level for adults: 40 mg/day
Zinc: In Summary
Chief functions in the body
– Part of many enzymes
– Associated with the hormone insulin
– Involved in making genetic material
and proteins, immune reactions,
transport of vitamin A, taste
perception, wound healing, the
making of sperm, and the normal
development of the fetus
Zinc
• Significant
sources
– Proteincontaining
foods
– Red meats,
shellfish
– Whole grains
Zinc
• Deficiency
symptoms
– Growth
retardation,
delayed sexual
maturation,
impaired immune
function, hair loss,
eye and skin
lesions, loss of
appetite
Zinc: In Summary
• Toxicity symptoms
– Loss of appetite, impaired immunity,
low HDL, copper and iron deficiencies
Iodine
• Iodine vs. iodide
• Deficiency
–Goitrogens
Iodine: In Summary
• 2001 RDA for adults: 150 g/day
• Upper level: 1100 g/day
• Chief functions in the body
– A component of two thyroid
hormones that help to regulate
growth, development, and metabolic
rate
Iodine: In Summary
• Significant sources
– Iodized salt, seafood, bread,
dairy products, plants grown in
iodine-rich soil and animals fed
those plants
• Deficiency disease
– Simple goiter
– Cretinism
Iodine: In Summary
• Deficiency symptoms
– Underactive thyroid gland, goiter
– Mental and physical retardation in
infants (cretinism)
• Toxicity symptoms
– Underactive thyroid gland, elevated
TSH, goiter
Selenium
• 2000 RDA for adults: 55 g/day
• Upper level for adults: 400 g/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Defends against oxidation
– Regulates thyroid hormone
• Significant sources
– Seafood, meat
– Whole grains, vegetables (depending
on soil content)
Selenium
• Deficiency symptoms
– Predisposition to heart disease
characterized by cardiac tissue
becoming fibrous (Keshan disease)
• Toxicity symptoms
– Loss and brittleness of hair and nails
– Skin rash, fatigue, irritability, and
nervous system disorders
– Garlic breath odor
Copper
• 2001 RDA for adults: 900 g/day
• Upper level for adults:
10,000 g/day (10 mg/day)
• Chief functions in the body
– Necessary for absorption and use of
iron in the formation of hemoglobin
– Part of several enzymes
Copper
• Significant sources
– Seafood
– Nuts, whole grains, seeds, legumes
• Deficiency symptoms
– Anemia, bone abnormalities
• Toxicity symptoms
– Liver damage
Manganese
• 2001 AI
– Men: 2.3 mg/day
– Women: 1.8 mg/day
• Upper level for adults: 11 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Cofactor for several enzymes
Manganese
• Significant sources
– Nuts, whole grains, leafy vegetables,
tea
• Deficiency symptoms
– Rare
• Toxicity symptoms
– Nervous system disorders
Fluoride
• 1997 AI
– Men: 3.8 mg/day
– Women: 3.1 mg/day
• Upper level for adults: 10 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Involved in the formation of bones
and teeth
– Helps to make teeth resistant to
decay
U.S.
Population
With
Fluoridated
Water
Fluoride
• Significant sources
– Drinking water (if fluoride containing
or fluoridated)
– Tea, seafood
• Deficiency symptoms
– Susceptibility to tooth decay
• Toxicity symptoms
– Fluorosis (pitting and discoloration of
teeth)
Chromium
• 2001 AI
– Men: 35 g/day
– Women: 25 g/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Enhances insulin action
• Significant sources
– Meats (especially liver)
– Whole grains, brewer’s yeast
Chromium
• Deficiency symptoms
– Diabetes-like condition
• Toxicity symptoms
– None reported
Molybdenum
• 2001 AI for adults: 45 g/day
• Upper level for adults: 2 mg/day
• Chief functions in the body
– Cofactor for several enzymes
• Significant sources
– Legumes, cereals
– Organ meats
Molybdenum
• Deficiency symptoms
– Unknown
• Toxicity symptoms
– None reported
– Reproductive effects in animals
Other Trace Minerals
• Nickel
• Silicon
• Vanadium
Other Trace
Minerals
• Cobalt
• Boron
• Arsenic
Contaminant Minerals
• Heavy metals
–Lead
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
• Defending against cancer
• Defending against heart disease
• Functional
foods...
– from nature
– from
manufacturers
Phytochemicals And
Functional Foods
Functional foods
– Inconclusive research
– Food labels
– Safety
– Overall healthfulness of products