Academic Writing Workshop (2)
Editing
Institute of English, University of Silesia
April 28th, 2009
Plans for AWW meetings
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In-text citation, list of references
Main text editing, quotations
Organisation and planning
Peer reviewers’ comments
Helpful sources
• Turabian, Kate L. 1996. A Manual for Writers
of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations. 6th
ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Wolański, Adam. 2008. Edycja tekstów.
Praktyczny poradnik. Warszawa: PWN.
• http://www.ikila.us.edu.pl/
Font
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The same type of font should be used throughout the text, the
default being Times New Roman;
The standard font size for normal text is 12;
Smaller font (TNR 10) is used for footnotes and block quotations,
often also for itemised lists, references and captions to tables and
figures
Suggestions for titles and subheadings (there is no period at the end
of a title or subheading):
This is the title of the text (TNR 14, bold, centred)
1.
This is a first-level section of the text (TNR 12, bold, leftaligned)
1.1
This is a second-level section of the text (TNR 12, bold, leftaligned, italicised)
1.1.1 This is a third-level section of the text (TNR 12, left-aligned)
Discussing the epistemic meaning of MUST, Coates (1983: 41)
suggests that it should be viewed along a cline extending from the subjective
core MUST of the ‘I-confidently-infer-that-x’ type to the objective peripheral
MUST of the ‘in-the-light-of-what-is-known-it-is-necessarily-the-case-that-x’
type. Coates lists the following features of the core epistemic must:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Main predication refers to state or activity in the present or past
(must have).
Subject is frequently inanimate . . .
Verb is usually stative.
Speaker expresses confidence in truth of utterance. (Coates,
1983: 42)
As regards the peripheral meaning of MUST, Coates (1983: 43) adds also
(rare) instances of
e)
f)
reference to states and activities in the future; and
lack of speaker’s involvement with MUST expressing pure
logical necessity.
Spacing
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Double-spaced or 1.5-spaced:
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Single-spaced: Block quotations;
Footnotes (leaving a blank line
between notes);
Itemized lists;
Examples if set off from the text;
Lists of references (leaving a blank line
between entries);
Runover lines in tables of contents,
lists of tables and figures, etc.
All the basic text.
Paragraphs
• No blank lines between paragraphs should be left;
• The first line of each paragraph should be indented from
the left margin by approximately 1.25 cm;
• Paragraphs should be justified;
• At least one blank line should be left before a new
subheading;
• At least one blank line should be left after the title;
• Unindented should remain:
Block quotations;
Titles and subheadings;
Captions to figures;
The paragraph immediately following a
title, a subheading, a figure, a block
quotation, a blocked example etc.
1. Introduction
Inspiration for this paper came from an anecdote – a saying attributed to
Władysław Gomułka, the first secretary of the Polish Communist Party in
the years 1956-1970, famous for his widely unfortunate and often illconsidered statements. While addressing the public during a propaganda
meeting, Gomułka was to say: “Yesterday we were standing on the edge of
a cliff. Today we have taken a step forward.” This prompted a reflection on
cases where figurative language misses the point, that is where the
intention of the producer of a metaphorical utterance and the effect of the
utterance on the audience do not tally.
The aim of this paper is to look into metaphor as a source of
unintentional verbal humour. First, the general mechanisms of humour in
language will be reviewed; next, a brief survey of linguistic devices for the
comic will be presented; finally, some instances of comic-generating
interference between metaphor and the co-text will be discussed. Although
in certain contexts and for other purposes the distinction between humour
and the comic may be worth upholding, throughout this discussion the terms
will be used interchangeably.
Tables, figures and graphs
• They should be numbered consecutively throughout the
text;
• Each should have a caption;
• In tables, columns and lines should have headings;
• A legend should be attached if necessary to clarify the
structure of a diagram;
• If they are taken from another text, a clear reference must
be given as appropriate.
Fig. 1. EMs in students’ outputs by token.
the number of translations
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13 15 17
19 21 23 25
27 29 31
33 35 37 39
41 43 45
47
Epistem ic m arkers
the num ber of successful translation attem pts
the num ber of successful attem pts w ith m odal m eaning transferred
Examples
• They should be given in italics, without quotation
marks;
• The source of the example should be clearly indicated;
• They may be set off from the rest of the text if the analysis
is based on them;
• If they are set off from the rest of the text, they should be
numbered consecutively and referred to by these numbers
in the text;
• If they are set off from the rest of the text, they are singlespaced;
• For the sake of space, they may be given in a smaller font
(TNR 10).
All these examples fall within the category of deontic modality,
which, as argued by van der Auwera and Plungian (1998: 81), “identifies the
enabling or compelling circumstances external to the participant as some
person(s), often the speaker, and/or as some social or ethical norm(s)
permitting or obliging the participant to engage in the state of affairs.”
(1)
Then I will argue that this notion should cover a class of cases that Heim
would probably not have included. (LP2003-2)
(2)
A theory of language should: (1) Be a theory of language and not of
something else, such as the mind or human behaviour. (LS2003-5)
(3)
Strictly speaking one should not think of speaker intentions as determining
directly the set of target mental representations. (LP2005-6)
Notably, the subjective/strong use of SHOULD was not attested in my corpus.
Other functions of italics
• In the text:
–
–
–
–
For examples;
For titles of books and periodicals;
For words or phrases imported from another language;
For special emphasis.
• In references:
– For titles of books and periodicals.
Freudian concept of das Unheimliche, the ‘uncanny’, which is
“nothing new or alien, but something which is familiar and oldestablished in the mind and which has become alienated from it only
through the process of repression” (Freud, 1990: 363—4), is in fact
central to Kayser’s understanding of the grotesque.
The publication and immediate success of Horace Walpole’s
The Castle of Otranto in 1764 opened a new era in the literary tastes of
the English.
A note on titles
• If given in the text (not in references, where a different
rule may apply depending on the format used), they follow
the spelling rules (in particular capitalisation) of their
language.
Words and phrases from other languages
• In principle, a translation should be supplied in single
quotation marks or square brackets immediately following
the item.
First, a large number of nonce-formations are coined
under the pressure of changing socio-cultural reality, e.g. Pl.
eurofob ‘a person who views the prospective accession of
Poland to the European Union with fear or hatred’ or
lepperyzm ‘practices, behaviour or philosophy of or similar to
that of…’ (coined from a proper name).
Thus more than half of the main clause occurrences of MUSIEĆ ‘must’
were classified as inferred evidentials (57%), the remaining 43% identified as
proper evidentials (Ex. 11, 12, respectively)
(11)
Tego rodzaju nacechowaną diatezę sygnalizować mogą oczywiście wyłącznie
tzw. czasowniki przechodnie, czyli takie, które dopuszczają możliwość
ujawnienia przez podmiot drugiego argumentu reprezentowanego przez siebie
predykatu. Czasowniki mogące sygnalizować tę diatezę reprezentować zatem
muszą predykaty conajmniej dwuargumentowe. (BPTJ2001-6)
[This kind of marked diathesis can of course be signalled only by so called
transitive verbs, that is verbs which allow the subject to disclose the second
argument of the predicate they represent. Thus verbs which can signal this
diathesis must be predicates with at least two arguments.]
(12)
Liczne skupisko nazw terenowych koło Szczecina (6 nazw) musiało pierwotnie
mieć związek z wcześniejszą nazwą miejscową lub rzeczną. (ON2003-4)
[The big cluster of toponyms in the vicinity of Szczecin must originally have
been connected with a former name of a place or a river]
A note on hyphenation
note-taking
first-level division
Almost half of the recorded examples of epistemic
SHOULD were identified as evidentials – either inferred
(35% of epistemic records, Ex. 15) or quotative (attributed,
in 14% of epistemic cases, Fig. 5).
Quotation marks
• Are used to signal a direct quotation if it is incorporated
in the text (in contrast to block quotations);
Later in the century, this view of the grotesque changed and once
more emphasis was placed on “fantasy with a practical aspect —
parody, burlesque, mockery, caricature” (Clayborough, 1965: 49).
• Are used around titles of shorter texts, like articles or
poems;
• Are used to supply a translation of a foreign item;
• Single quotation marks are normally used for quotes
within quotes and for marking elements as instances of
mention rather than use.
‘Language’ has eight characters.
Citations
• Direct quotations
– Follow exactly the quoted
source;
– Must fit in syntactically in the
text;
– Are quoted with exact page
reference;
– No intervention permitted
apart from elipsis and (minor!)
additions introduced in square
brackets;
– If they are in another language,
a translation should be
supplied, e.g. in a footnote.
• Indirect quotations
– They paraphrase the source;
– Page reference, although
often recommended, is not
obligatory;
– Permit a selective approach
to the information in the
source;
– Are unproblematic if the
source is in another
language – the paraphrase is
always in English and no
exact translation is required.
Direct quotations
• Incorporated in the text
– Short, not longer than 100
words or 7 lines;
– Enclosed in double
quotation marks;
– Closely following the
source in punctuation
except at the end of the
quote, where commas and
periods are always placed
INSIDE the quote (all other
marks must be placed
outside unless they are truly
part of the quote).
• Block quotations
– Longer;
– Set off from the rest of the
text as a separate paragraph;
– The paragraph is indented
throughout from both
margins;
– The font is smaller (TNR
10);
– No quotation marks are
used.
Incorporated quotations
Freeman (1970: 4) observes that there are three basic approaches to the
problem of style in the field of linguistic stylistics: “style as deviation from the
norm, style as recurrence or convergence of textural pattern, and style as a
particular exploitation of a grammar of possibilities.” The difficulty connected
with the first style-as-deviation or style-as-difference approach is the status of
the norm.
With elipsis:
In their discussion of foregrounding, both Mukařovský and Leech draw
attention not only to the presence of elements which violate the norm, but also
to their interdependencies. “The devices by which poetic language achieves its
maximum of foregrounding must . . . be sought elsewhere than in the quantity
of foregrounded components. They consist in the consistency and systematic
character of foregrounding” (Mukařovský, 1970: 44).
Footnoting:
Riffaterre understands the norm in terms of stylistic context. “The
stylistic context is a linguistic pattern suddenly broken by an element which
was unpredictable, and the contrast resulting from this interference is the
stylistic stimulus.”1
Block quotations
However, the English were more tolerant towards the grotesque
than the author of L’art poètique.
English taste for the grotesque revealed itself in opera, burlesque, farce,
and essays produced during the neo-classical years. Their love of the
Gothic was more submerged, but it was also there. In theory, classical taste
prevailed, but in practice, the staunchest neo-classicists admired certain
‘Gothic’ writers even though they considered these Elizabethans
‘grotesque’ and ‘irregular’. (Barasch, 1971: 129)
Footnoting:
Kirk views the image of a human-animal hybrid in terms of the
nature-culture polarisation, the Centaur being a fine example:
First of all the Centaurs themselves, in that they were half horse,
symbolized both the wild aspect of nature (for horses are shaggy, swift,
sometimes difficult to control, and obviously potent in a sexual sense) and
its more benign side (for they are also friendly to men, impressive and
dignified in appearance, contemplative in their glance and a mark of social
standing). That is their horse-aspect; but they are half men as well, and so
the coexistence of nature and culture becomes all the more striking.1
Indirect quotations
The author’s identity is, on the one hand, that of a
member of the academic discourse community who shows
respect for fellow scholars and the conventions accepted
by the community (see, e.g., Myers, 1989; Swales, 1990;
Hyland, 1994) and on the other, that of an individual
researcher making a bid for recognition and acceptance of
his/her claims (Koutsantoni, 2004; Martín-Martín and
Burgess 2004).
Additions inside direct quotations
In an attempt to define verbal humour, Raskin (1985:
46) proposes that it encompasses “[any] text which is
capable of creating a humorous effect,” to the exclusion of
“a humorous situation which is not created, described and
expressed by a text.” To clarify this point, the author
continues: “[even] if a non-verbal humorous situation is
accompanied by a text but the text is just a component of
the joke rather than its creator, it is still non-verbal
humour” (Raskin, 1985: 46).
References (Bibliography) and ‘hanging entries’
Abdel-Fattah, Mahmoud M. 2005. On the translation of modals from English into
Arabic and vice versa: The case of deontic modality. Babel 51: 31-48.
Bülow-Møller, Anne Marie. 1999. Existential problems: On the processing of irrealis in
simultaneous interpreting. Interpreting 4(2): 145-168
Candlin, Christopher N., and Ken Hyland, eds. 1999. Writing: Texts, processes and
practices. London: Longman.
Chafe, Wallace, and Johanna Nichols, eds. 1986. Evidentiality: The linguistic coding of
epistemology. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex.
Coates, Jennifer. 1983. The semantics of modal auxiliaries. London: Croom Helm.
Dendale, Patrick, and Liliane Tasmowski. 2001. Introduction: Evidentiality and related
notions. Journal of Pragmatics 33: 339-348.
Englebretson, Robert, ed. 2007. Stancetaking in discourse: Subjectivity, evaluation,
interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Thank you!