History of amateur radioFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
WORD REFERENCES
June 29, 2011
Beginnings
The birth of amateur radio and radio in general was mostly associated with various amateur
experimenters. There are many contenders to being the inventor of radio, that honor has been
disputed between not only the original experimenters, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1888), Nikola
Tesla,[5] and Guglielmo Marconi, but also Amos Dolbear, Reginald Fessenden, James Clerk
Maxwell, Sir Oliver Lodge, Mahlon Loomis, Nathan Stubblefield,[6] and Alexander Popov.[7] In
the beginning of 1895, Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions of his New York
lab at West Point (a distance of 50 miles).[8] Marconi demonstrated the transmission and
reception of Morse Code based radio signals over a distance of two or more kilometers (and
up to six kilometers) on Salisbury Plain in England in 1896. Marconi, by 1899, sent wireless
messages across the English Channel and, according to his reports, the first transatlantic
transmission (1902).[9]Following Marconi's experiments (1900–1908) many people began
experimenting with radio. Communications were made in Morse Code by use of spark gap
transmitters. These first operators were the pioneers of amateur radio.[10]
RMS Titanic (April 2, 1912).
In 1912 after the RMS Titanic sank, the United States Congress passed the Radio Act of 1912[9]
which restricted private stations to wavelengths of 200 meters or shorter (1500 kHz or
higher).[11] These "short wave" frequencies were generally considered useless at the time,
and the number of radio hobbyists in the U.S. is estimated to have dropped by as much as
88%.[12] Other countries followed suit and by 1913 the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea was convened and produced a treaty requiring shipboard radio stations to
be manned 24 hours a day. The Radio Act of 1912 also marked the beginning of U.S. federal
licensing of amateur radio operators and stations. The origin of the term "ham", as a synonym
for an amateur radio operator, was a taunt by professional operators.[13][14][15]
World War I
By 1917, World War I had put a stop to amateur radio. In the United States, Congress ordered
all amateur radio operators to cease operation and even dismantle their equipment.[16] These
restrictions were lifted after World War I ended, and the amateur radio service restarted on
October 1, 1919.
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Between the wars
Early homebrew amateur radio transmitter
German amateur radio and ski enthusiast in 1924
In 1921, a challenge was issued by American hams to their counterparts in the United Kingdom
to receive radio contacts from across the Atlantic. Soon, many American stations were
beginning to be heard in the UK, shortly followed by a UK amateur being heard in the US in
December 1922. November 27, 1923 marked the first transatlantic two-way contact between
American amateur Fred Schnell and French amateur Leon Deloy.[17] Shortly after, the first two
way contact between the UK and USA was in December 1923, between London and West
Hartford, Connecticut.[18] In the following months 17 American and 13 European amateur
stations were communicating. Within the next year, communications between North and
South America; South America and New Zealand; North America and New Zealand; and
London and New Zealand were being made.[19]
These international Amateur contacts helped prompt the first International Radiotelegraph
Conference, held in Washington, DC, USA in 1927-28.[9] At the conference, standard
international amateur radio bands of 80/75, 40, 20 and 10 meters and radio callsign prefixes
were established by treaty.
In 1933 Robert Moore, W6DEI, begins single-sideband voice experiments on 75 meter lower
sideband. By 1934, there were several ham stations on the air using single-sideband.[20]
World War II
During the German occupation of Poland, the priest Fr. Maximilian Kolbe, SP3RN was arrested
by the Germans.[21] The Germans believed his amateur radio activities were somehow
involved in espionage[22] and he was transferred to Auschwitz on May 28, 1941. After some
prisoners escaped in 1941, the Germans ordered that 10 prisoners be killed in retribution. Fr.
Kolbe was martyred when he volunteered to take the place of one of the condemned men. On
October 10, 1982 he was canonized by Pope John Paul II as Saint Maximilian Kolbe, Apostle of
Consecration to Mary and declared a Martyr of charity.[21] He is considered the Patron saint
of Amateur radio operators.[22]
Two radios in the ARC-5 series. Unit on the left is a BC-453-B, covering 190-530 kHz; the one on
the right is a BC-454-E, covering 3-6 MHz. Both have been modified for Amateur Radio use by
replacing the front connector with a small control panel.
Again during World War II, as it had done during the first World War, the United States
Congress suspended all amateur radio operations.[11] With most of the American amateur
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radio operators in the armed forces at this time, the US government created the War
emergency radio service which would remain active through 1945. After the War the amateur
radio service began operating again, with many hams converting war surplus radios, such as
the ARC-5, to amateur use.
Post war era
A U.S. Postage Stamp from 1964, commemorating amateur radio.
In 1947 the uppermost 300 kHz segment of the world allocation of the 10 meter band from
29.700 MHz to 30.000 MHz was taken away from amateur radio.
During the 1950s, hams helped pioneer the use of single-sideband modulation for HF voice
communication. In 1961 the first orbital satellite carrying amateur radio (OSCAR) was
launched. Oscar I would be the first of a series of amateur radio satellites created throughout
the world.[23]
Ham radio enthusiasts were instrumental in keeping U.S. Navy personnel stationed in
Antarctica in contact with loved ones back home during the International Geophysical Year
during the late 1950s.[24]
U.S. Navy Chief Petty Officer Adrey Garret uses a ham radio at Williams Air Operating Facility
during the 1956 winter. Ham radio was the only means of voice communication with friends
and family back in the U.S. for navy personnel living and working in Antarctica in the days
before satellite telephone technology became common.
Late 20th century
At the 1979 World administrative radio conference in Geneva, Switzerland, three new amateur
radio bands were established: 30 meters, 17 meters and 12 meters.[25] Today, these three
bands are often referred to as the WARC bands by hams.
During the Falklands War in 1982, Argentine forces seized control of the phones and radio
network on the islands and had cut off communications with London. Scottish amateur radio
operator Les Hamilton, GM3ITN[26][27] was able to relay crucial information from fellow hams
Bob McLeod and Tony Pole-Evans on the islands to British military intelligence in London,
including the details of troop deployment, bombing raids, radar bases and military
activities.[28]
3
Major contributions to communications in the fields of automated message systems and
packet radio were made by amateur radio operators throughout the 1980s. These computer
controlled systems were used for the first time to distribute communications during and after
disasters.[9]
American entry-level Novice and Technician class licensees were granted CW and SSB
segments on the 10 Meter Band in 1987. The frequency ranges allocated to them are still
known today throughout much of the world as the Novice Sub Bands even though it is no
longer possible to obtain a novice class license in the US.
Further advances in digital communications occurred in the 1990s as Amateurs used the power
of PCs and sound cards to introduce such modes as PSK31 and began to incorporate Digital
Signal Processing and Software-defined radio into their activities..
Recent
For many years, amateur radio operators were required by international agreement to
demonstrate Morse Code proficiency in order to use frequencies below 30 MHz. In 2003 the
World radiocommunications conference (WRC) met in Geneva, Switzerland, and voted to allow
member countries of the International Telecommunications Union to eliminate Morse Code
testing if they so wished .[29]
On December 15, 2006, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued a
Report and Order eliminating all Morse code testing requirements for all American Amateur
Radio License applicants, which took effect February 23, 2007.[30]
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PART II
WORD REFERENCES
Rooftop directional antennas, typical for use at VHF and UHF frequenciesAn antenna (or aerial)
is an electrical device which couples radio waves in free space to an electrical current used by a
radio receiver or transmitter. In reception, the antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage that the radio receiver can amplify.
Alternatively, a radio transmitter will produce a large radio frequency current that may be
applied to the terminals of the same antenna in order to convert it into an electromagnetic
wave (radio wave) radiated into free space. Antennas are thus essential to the operation of all
radio equipment, both transmitters and receivers. They are used in systems such as radio and
television broadcasting, two-way radio, wireless LAN, mobile telephony, radar, and satellite
communications.
Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors (or "elements") with an
electrical connection (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. A
current forced through such a conductor by a radio transmitter will create an alternating
magnetic field according to Ampère's law. Or the alternating magnetic field due to a distant
radio transmitter will induce a voltage at the antenna terminals, according to Faraday's law,
which is connected to the input of a receiver. In the so-called far field, at a considerable
distance away from the antenna, the oscillating magnetic field is coupled with a similarly
oscillating electric field; together these define an electromagnetic wave which is capable of
propagating great distances.
Light is one example of electromagnetic radiation, along with infrared and x-rays, while radio
waves differ only in their much lower frequency (and much longer wavelength). Electronic
circuits can operate at these lower frequencies, processing radio signals conducted through
wires. But it is only through antennas that those radio frequency electrical signals are
converted to (and from) propagating radio waves. Depending on the design of the antenna,
radio waves can be sent toward and received from all directions ("omnidirectional"), whereas
a directional or beam antenna is designed to operate in a particular direction.
The first antennas were built in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) in his pioneering
experiments to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James
Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflectors for both
5
transmitting and receiving. He published his work and installation drawings in Annalen der
Physik und Chemie (vol. 36, 1889).
[edit] TerminologyThe words antenna (plural: antennas[1]) and aerial are used
interchangeably; but usually a rigid metallic structure is termed an antenna and a wire format
is called an aerial. In the United Kingdom and other British English speaking areas the term
aerial is more common, even for rigid types. The noun aerial is occasionally written with a
diaeresis mark—aërial—in recognition of the original spelling of the adjective aërial from
which the noun is derived.
The origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to Guglielmo
Marconi. In 1895, while testing early radio apparatuses in the Swiss Alps at Salvan, Switzerland
in the Mont Blanc region, Marconi experimented with early wireless equipment. A 2.5 meter
long pole, along which was carried a wire, was used as a radiating and receiving aerial element.
In Italian a tent pole is known as l'antenna centrale, and the pole with a wire alongside it used
as an aerial was simply called l'antenna. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and
receiving elements were known simply as aerials or terminals. Marconi's use of the word
antenna (Italian for pole) would become a popular term for what today is uniformly known as
the antenna.[2]
In common usage, the word antenna may refer broadly to an entire assembly including
support structure, enclosure (if any), etc. in addition to the actual functional components.
Especially at microwave frequencies, a receiving antenna may include not only the actual
electrical antenna but an integrated preamplifier and/or mixer.
[edit] OverviewAntennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter in order to couple
its electrical connection to the electromagnetic field. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves
which carry signals through the air (or through space) at the speed of light with almost no
transmission loss. Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals (information) in
systems including broadcast (audio) radio, television, mobile telephones, wi-fi (WLAN) data
networks, trunk lines and point-to-point communications links (telephone, data networks),
satellite links, many remote controlled devices such as garage door openers, and wireless
remote sensors, among many others. Radio waves are also used directly for measurements in
technologies including RADAR, GPS, and radio astronomy. In each and every case, the
transmitters and receivers involved require antennas, although these are sometimes hidden
(such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside a laptop computer equipped with wi-fi).
According to their applications and technology available, antennas generally fall in one of two
categories:
1.Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which receive or radiate more or less in
all directions. These are employed when the relative position of the other station is unknown
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or arbitrary. They are also used at lower frequencies where a directional antenna would be too
large, or simply to cut costs in applications where a directional antenna isn't required.
2.Directional or beam antennas which are intended to preferentially radiate or receive in a
particular direction or directional pattern.
In common usage "omnidirectional" usually refers to all horizontal directions, typically with
reduced performance in the direction of the sky or the ground (a truly isotropic radiator is not
even possible). A "directional" antenna usually is intended to maximize its coupling to the
electromagnetic field in the direction of the other station, or sometimes to cover a particular
sector such as a 120° horizontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site.
One example of omnidirectional antennas is the very common vertical antenna or whip
antenna consisting of a metal rod (often, but not always, a quarter of a wavelength long). A
dipole antenna is similar but consists of two such conductors extending in opposite directions,
with a total length that is often, but not always, a half of a wavelength long. Dipoles are
typically oriented horizontally in which case they are weakly directional: signals are reasonably
well radiated toward or received from all directions with the exception of the direction along
the conductor itself; this region is called the antenna blind cone or null.
Both the vertical and dipole antennas are simple in construction and relatively inexpensive.
The dipole antenna, which is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced component,
with equal but opposite voltages and currents applied at its two terminals through a balanced
transmission line (or to a coaxial transmission line through a so-called balun). The vertical
antenna, on the other hand, is a monopole antenna. It is typically connected to the inner
conductor of a coaxial transmission line (or a matching network); the shield of the transmission
line is connected to ground. In this way, the ground (or any large conductive surface) plays the
role of the second conductor of a dipole, thereby forming a complete circuit.[3] Since
monopole antennas rely on a conductive ground, a so-called grounding structure may be
employed in order to provide a better ground contact to the earth or which itself acts as a
ground plane to perform that function regardless of (or in absence of) an actual contact with
the earth.
Antennas fancier than the dipole or vertical designs are usually intended to increase the
directivity and consequently the gain of the antenna. This can be accomplished in many
different ways leading to a plethora of antenna designs. The vast majority of designs are fed
with a balanced line (unlike a monopole antenna) and are based on the dipole antenna with
additional components (or elements) which increase its directionality.
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For instance, a phased array consists of two or more simple antennas which are connected
together through an electrical network. This often involves a number of parallel dipole
antennas with a certain spacing. Depending on the relative phase introduced by the network,
the same combination of dipole antennas can operate as a "broadside array" (directional
normal to a line connecting the elements) or as an "end-fire array" (directional along the line
connecting the elements). Antenna arrays may employ any basic (omnidirectional or weakly
directional) antenna type, such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. These elements are often
identical.
However a log-periodic dipole array consists of a number of dipole elements of different
lengths in order to obtain a somewhat directional antenna having an extremely wide
bandwidth: these are frequently used for television reception in fringe areas. The dipole
antennas composing it are all considered "active elements" since they are all electrically
connected together (and to the transmission line). On the other hand, a superficially similar
dipole array, the Yagi-Uda Antenna (or simply "Yagi"), has only one dipole element with an
electrical connection; the other so-called parasitic elements interact with the electromagnetic
field in order to realize a fairly directional antenna but one which is limited to a rather narrow
bandwidth. The Yagi antenna has similar looking parasitic dipole elements but which act
differently due to their somewhat different lengths. There may be a number of so-called
"directors" in front of the active element in the direction of propagation, and usually a single
(but possibly more) "reflector" on the opposite side of the active element.
Greater directionality can be obtained using beam-forming techniques such as a parabolic
reflector or a horn. Since the size of a directional antenna depends on it being large compared
to the wavelength, very directional antennas of this sort are mainly feasible at UHF and
microwave frequencies. On the other hand, at low frequencies (such as AM broadcast) where
a practical antenna must be much smaller than a wavelength, significant directionality isn't
even possible. A vertical antenna or loop antenna small compared to the wavelength is
typically used, with the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a
vertical antenna a loading coil at the base of the antenna may be employed to cancel the
reactive component of impedance; small loop antennas are tuned with parallel capacitors for
this purpose.
An antenna lead-in is the transmission line (or feed line) which connects the antenna to a
transmitter or receiver. The antenna feed may refer to all components connecting the antenna
to the transmitter or receiver, such as an impedance matching network in addition to the
transmission line. In a so-called aperture antenna, such as a horn or parabolic dish, the "feed"
may also refer to a basic antenna inside the entire system (normally at the focus of the
parabolic dish or at the throat of a horn) which could be considered the one active element in
that antenna system. A microwave antenna may also be fed directly from a waveguide in lieu
of a (conductive) transmission line.
8
An antenna counterpoise or ground plane is a structure of conductive material which improves
or substitutes for the ground. It may be connected to or insulated from the natural ground. In
a monopole antenna, this aids in the function of the natural ground, particularly where
variations (or limitations) of the characteristics of the natural ground interfere with its proper
function. Such a structure is normally connected to the return connection of an unbalanced
transmission line such as the shield of a coaxial cable.
An electromagnetic wave refractor in some aperture antennas is a component which due to its
shape and position functions to selectively delay or advance portions of the electromagnetic
wavefront passing through it. The refractor alters the spatial characteristics of the wave on
one side relative to the other side. It can, for instance, bring the wave to a focus or alter the
wave front in other ways, generally in order to maximize the directivity of the antenna system.
This is the radio equivalent of an optical lens.
An antenna coupling network is a passive network (generally a combination of inductive and
capacitive circuit elements) used for impedance matching in between the antenna and the
transmitter or receiver. This may be used to improve the standing wave ratio in order to
minimize losses in the transmission line (especially at higher frequencies and/or over longer
distances) and to present the transmitter or receiver with a standard resistive impedance (such
as 75 ohms) that it expects to see for optimum operation.
[edit] ReciprocityIt is a fundamental property of antennas that the characteristics of an
antenna described in the next section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance, bandwidth,
resonant frequency and polarization, are the same whether the antenna is transmitting or
receiving. For example, the "receiving pattern" (sensitivity as a function of direction) of an
antenna when used for reception is identical to the radiation pattern of the antenna when it is
driven and functions as a radiator. This is a consequence of the reciprocity theorem of
electromagnetics. Therefore in discussions of antenna properties no distinction is usually made
between receiving and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be viewed as either
transmitting or receiving, whichever is more convenient.
A necessary condition for the above reciprocity property is that the materials in the antenna
and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal. Reciprocal (or bilateral) means that the
material has the same response to an electric or magnetic field, or a current, in one direction,
as it has to the field or current in the opposite direction. Most materials used in antennas meet
these conditions, but some microwave antennas use[citation needed] high-tech components
such as isolators and circulators, made of nonreciprocal materials such as ferrite or garnet.
9
These can be used to give the antenna a different behavior on receiving than it has on
transmitting, which can be useful in applications like radar.
[edit] ParametersMain article: Antenna measurement
Antennas are characterized by a number of performance measures which a user would be
concerned with in selecting or designing an antenna for a particular application. Chief among
these relate to the directional characteristics (as depicted in the antenna's radiation pattern)
and the resulting gain. Even in omnidirectional (or weakly directional) antennas, the gain can
often be increased by concentrating more of its power in the horizontal directions, sacrificing
power radiated toward the sky and ground. The antenna's power gain (or simply "gain") also
takes into account the antenna's efficiency, and is often the primary figure of merit.
Resonant antennas are expected to be used around a particular resonant frequency; an
antenna must therefore be built or ordered to match the frequency range of the intended
application. A particular antenna design will present a particular feedpoint impedance. While
this may affect the choice of an antenna, an antenna's impedance can also be adapted to the
desired impedance level of a system using an matching network while maintaining the other
characteristics (except for a possible loss of efficiency).
Although these parameters can be measured in principle, such measurements are difficult and
require very specialized equipment. Beyond tuning a transmitting antenna using an SWR
meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical predictions based on the antenna design
and/or on claims of a vendor.
An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polarization which can be
reoriented by tilting the axis of the antenna in many (but not all) cases. The physical size of an
antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths).
Highly directional antennas need to be significantly larger than the wavelength. Resonant
antennas use a conductor, or a pair of conductors, each of which is about one quarter of the
wavelength in length. Antennas that are required to be very small compared to the
wavelength sacrifice efficiency and cannot be very directional. Fortunately at higher
frequencies (UHF, microwaves) trading off performance to obtain a smaller physical size is
usually not required.
[edit] Resonant antennasWhile there are broadband designs for antennas, the vast majority of
antennas are based on the half-wave dipole which has a particular resonant frequency. At its
resonant frequency, the wavelength (given by the speed of light divided by the resonant
frequency) is slightly over twice the length of the half-wave dipole (thus the name). The
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quarter-wave vertical antenna consists of one arm of a half-wave dipole, with the other arm
replaced by a connection to ground or an equivalent ground plane (or counterpoise). A YagiUda array consists of a number of resonant dipole elements, only one of which is directly
connected to the transmission line. The quarter-wave elements of a dipole or vertical antenna
imitate a series-resonant electrical element, since if they are driven at the resonant frequency
a standing wave is created with the peak current at the feedpoint and the peak voltage at the
far end.
A common misconception is that the ability of a resonant antenna to transmit (or receive) fails
at frequencies far from the resonant frequency. The reason a dipole antenna needs to be used
at the resonant frequency has to do with the impedance match between the antenna and the
transmitter or receiver (and its transmission line). For instance, a dipole using a fairly thin
conductor[4] will have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance of about 63 ohms at its design
frequency. Feeding that antenna with a current of 1 ampere will require 63 volts of RF, and the
antenna will radiate 63 watts (ignoring losses) of radio frequency power. If that antenna is
driven with 1 ampere at a frequency 20% higher, it will still radiate as efficiently but in order to
do that about 200 volts would be required due to the change in the antenna's impedance
which is now largely reactive (voltage out of phase with the current). A typical transmitter
would not find that impedance acceptable and would deliver much less than 63 watts to it; the
transmission line would be operating at a high (poor) standing wave ratio. But using an
appropriate matching network, that large reactive impedance could be converted to a resistive
impedance satisfying the transmitter and accepting the available power of the transmitter.
This principle is used to construct vertical antennas substantially shorter than the 1/4
wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. By adding an inductance in series with the
vertical antenna (a so-called loading coil) the capacitative reactance of this antenna can be
cancelled leaving a pure resistance which can then be matched to the transmission line.
Sometimes the resulting resonant frequency of such a system (antenna plus matching
network) is described using the construct of "electrical length" and the use of a shorter
antenna at a lower frequency than its resonant frequency is termed "electrical lengthening".
For example, at 30 MHz (wavelength = 10 meters) a true resonant monopole would be almost
2.5 meters (1/4 wavelength) long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall would require the
addition of a loading coil. Then it may be said that the coil has "lengthened" the antenna to
achieve an "electrical length" of 2.5 meters, that is, 1/4 wavelength at 30 MHz where the
combined system now resonates. However, the resulting resistive impedance achieved will be
quite a bit lower than the impedance of a resonant monopole, likely requiring further
impedance matching.
[edit] Current and voltage distributionThe antenna conductors have the lowest feedpoint
impedance at the resonant frequency where they are just under 1/4 wavelength long; two
such conductors in line fed differentially thus realizes the familiar "half-wave dipole". When
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fed with an RF current at the resonant frequency, the quarter wave element contains a
standing wave with the voltage and current largely (but not exactly) in phase quadrature, as
would be obtained using a quarter wave stub of transmission line. The current reaches a
minimum at the end of the element (where it has nowhere to go!) and is maximum at the
feedpoint. The voltage, on the other hand, is the greatest at the end of the conductor and
reaches a minimum (but not zero) at the feedpoint. Making the conductor shorter or longer
than 1/4 wavelength means that the voltage pattern reaches its minimum somewhere beyond
the feedpoint, so that the feedpoint has a higher voltage and thus sees a higher impedance, as
we have noted. Since that voltage pattern is almost in phase quadrature with the current, the
impedance seen at the feedpoint is not only much higher but mainly reactive.
It can be seen that if such an element is resonant at f0 to produce such a standing wave
pattern, then feeding that element with 3f0 (whose wavelength is 1/3 that of f0) will lead to a
standing wave pattern in which the voltage is likewise a minimum at the feedpoint (and the
current at a maximum there). Thus, an antenna element is also resonant when its length is 3/4
of a wavelength (3/2 wavelength for a complete dipole). This is true for all odd multiples of 1/4
wavelength, where the feedpoint impedance is purely resistive, though larger than the
resistive impedance of the 1/4 wave element. Although such an antenna is resonant and works
perfectly well at the higher frequency, the antenna radiation pattern is also altered compared
to the half-wave dipole.
The use of a monopole or dipole at odd multiples of the fundamental resonant frequency,
however, does not extend to even multiples (thus a 1/2 wavelength monopole or 1
wavelength dipole). Now the voltage standing wave is at its peak at the feedpoint, while that
of the current (which must be zero at the end of the conductor) is at a minimum (but not
exactly zero). The antenna is anti-resonant at this frequency. Although the reactance at the
feedpoint can be cancelled using such an element length, the feedpoint impedance is very
high, and is highly dependent on the diameter of the conductor (which makes only a small
difference at the actual resonant frequency). Such an antenna does not match the much lower
characteristic impedance of available transmission lines, and is generally not used. However
some equipment where transmission lines are not involved which desire a high driving point
impedance may take advantage of this anti-resonance.
[edit] BandwidthAlthough a resonant antenna has a purely resistive feedpoint impedance at a
particular frequency, many (if not most) applications require using an antenna over a range of
frequencies. An antenna's bandwidth specifies the range of frequencies over which its
performance does not suffer due a poor impedance match. Also in the case of a Yagi-Uda
array, the use of the antenna very far away from its design frequency reduces the antenna's
directivity, thus reducing the usable bandwidth regardless of impedance matching.
12
Except for the latter concern, the resonant frequency of a resonant antenna can always be
altered by adjusting a suitable matching network. To do this efficiently one would require
remotely adjusting a matching network at the site of the antenna, since simply adjusting a
matching network at the transmitter (or receiver) would leave the transmission line with a
poor standing wave ratio.
Instead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose impedance does not vary so greatly over
a certain bandwidth. It turns out that the amount of reactance seen at the terminals of a
resonant antenna when the frequency is shifted, say, by 5%, depends very much on the
diameter of the conductor used. A long thin wire used as a half-wave dipole (or quarter wave
monopole) will have a reactance significantly greater than the resistive impedance it has at
resonance, leading to a poor match and generally unacceptable performance. Making the
element using a tube of a diameter perhaps 1/50 of its length, however, results in a reactance
at this altered frequency which is not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which will
only modestly damage the antenna's net performance. Thus rather thick tubes are typically
used for the solid elements of such antennas, including Yagi-Uda arrays.
Rather than just using a thick tube, there are similar techniques used to the same effect such
as replacing thin wire elements with cages to simulate a thicker element. This widens the
bandwidth of the resonance. On the other hand, amateur radio antennas need to operate over
several bands which are widely separated from each other. This can often be accomplished
simply by connecting resonant elements for the different bands in parallel. Most of the
transmitter's power will flow into the resonant element while the others present a high
(reactive) impedance and draw little current from the same voltage. A popular solution uses
so-called traps consisting of parallel resonant circuits which are strategically placed in breaks
along each antenna element. When used at one particular frequency band the trap presents a
very high impedance (parallel resonance) effectively truncating the element at that length,
making it a proper resonant antenna. At a lower frequency the trap allows the full length of
the element to be employed, albeit with a shifted resonant frequency due to the inclusion of
the trap's net reactance at that lower frequency.
The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized according
to its Q, just as one uses to characterize the sharpness of an L-C resonant circuit. However it is
often assumed that there is an advantage in an antenna having a high Q. After all, Q is short
for "quality factor" and a low Q typically signifies excessive loss (due to unwanted resistance)
in a resonant L-C circuit. However this understanding does not apply to resonant antennas
where the resistance involved is the radiation resistance, a desired quantity which removes
energy from the resonant element in order to radiate it (the purpose of an antenna, after all!).
The Q is a measure of the ratio of reactance to resistance, so with a fixed radiation resistance
(an element's radiation resistance is almost independent of its diameter) a greater reactance
off-resonance corresponds to the poorer bandwidth of a very thin conductor. The Q of such a
13
narrowband antenna can be as high as 15. On the other hand a thick element presents less
reactance at an off-resonant frequency, and consequently a Q as low as 5. These two antennas
will perform equivalently at the resonant frequency, but the second antenna will perform over
a bandwidth 3 times as wide as the "hi-Q" antenna consisting of a thin conductor.
[edit] GainMain article: Antenna gain
Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's radiation
pattern. A high-gain antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular direction. Specifically,
the antenna gain, or power gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power
per unit surface) radiated by the antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an
arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical
isotropic antenna.
The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomenon - power is not added by the antenna, but
simply redistributed to provide more radiated power in a certain direction than would be
transmitted by an isotropic antenna. An antenna designer must take into account the
application for the antenna when determining the gain. High-gain antennas have the
advantage of longer range and better signal quality, but must be aimed carefully in a particular
direction. Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation of the antenna is
relatively inconsequential. For example, a dish antenna on a spacecraft is a high-gain device
that must be pointed at the planet to be effective, whereas a typical Wi-Fi antenna in a laptop
computer is low-gain, and as long as the base station is within range, the antenna can be in any
orientation in space. It makes sense to improve horizontal range at the expense of reception
above or below the antenna. Thus most antennas labelled "omnidirectional" really have some
gain.[5]
In practice, the half-wave dipole is taken as a reference instead of the isotropic radiator. The
gain is then given in dBd (decibels over dipole):
The effective area or effective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion of the
power of a passing electromagnetic wave which it delivers to its terminals, expressed in terms
of an equivalent area. For instance, if a radio wave passing a given location has a flux of 1 pW /
m2 (10−12 watts per square meter) and an antenna has an effective area of 12 m2, then the
antenna would deliver 12 pW of RF power to the receiver (30 microvolts rms at 75 ohms).
Since the receiving antenna is not equally sensitive to signals received from all directions, the
effective area is a function of the direction to the source.
Due to reciprocity (discussed above) the gain of an antenna used for transmitting must be
proportional to its effective area when used for receiving. Consider an antenna with no loss,
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that is, one whose electrical efficiency is 100%. It can be shown that its effective area averaged
over all directions must be equal to λ2/4π, the wavelength squared divided by 4π. Gain is
defined such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 100% electrical
efficiency is equal to 1. Therefore the effective area Aeff in terms of the gain G in a given
direction is given by:
For an antenna with an efficiency of less than 100%, both the effective area and gain are
reduced by that same amount. Therefore the above relationship between gain and effective
area still holds. These are thus two different ways of expressing the same quantity. Aeff is
especially convenient when computing the power that would be received by an antenna of a
specified gain, as illustrated by the above example.
[edit] Radiation patternMain article: Radiation pattern
polar plots of the horizontal cross sections of a (virtual) Yagi-Uda-antenna. Outline connects
points with 3db field power compared to an ISO emitter.The radiation pattern of an antenna is
a plot of the relative field strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna at different
angles. It is typically represented by a three dimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal
and vertical cross sections. The pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in
all directions, would look like a sphere. Many nondirectional antennas, such as monopoles and
dipoles, emit equal power in all horizontal directions, with the power dropping off at higher
and lower angles; this is called an omnidirectional pattern and when plotted looks like a torus
or donut.
The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxima or "lobes" at various angles,
separated by "nulls", angles where the radiation falls to zero. This is because the radio waves
emitted by different parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing maxima at angles where
the radio waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero radiation at other angles where the
radio waves arrive out of phase. In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves in a
particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called
the "main lobe". The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and are called
"sidelobes". The axis through the main lobe is called the "principle axis" or "boresight axis".
[edit] ImpedanceAs an electro-magnetic wave travels through the different parts of the
antenna system (radio, feed line, antenna, free space) it may encounter differences in
impedance (E/H, V/I, etc.). At each interface, depending on the impedance match, some
fraction of the wave's energy will reflect back to the source,[6] forming a standing wave in the
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feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in the wave can be measured and is
called the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be
marginally acceptable in low power applications where power loss is more critical, although an
SWR as high as 6:1 may still be usable with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance
differences at each interface (impedance matching) will reduce SWR and maximize power
transfer through each part of the antenna system.
Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna at the
wavelength in use. The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed line and radio by
adjusting the impedance of the feed line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer.
More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load (see below) with an antenna tuner, a
balun, a matching transformer, matching networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or
matching sections such as the gamma match.
[edit] EfficiencyMain article: Antenna efficiency
Efficiency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power actually radiated (in all directions) to
the power absorbed by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to the antenna terminals
which is not radiated is converted into heat. This is usually through loss resistance in the
antenna's conductors, but can also be due to dielectric or magnetic core losses in antennas (or
antenna systems) using such components. Such loss effectively robs power from the
transmitter, requiring a stronger transmitter in order to transmit a signal of a given strength.
For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an antenna having an efficiency of 80%, then
the antenna will radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of heat. In order to radiate
100 W of power, one would need to use a transmitter capable of supplying 125 W to the
antenna. Note that antenna efficiency is a separate issue from impedance matching, which
may also reduce the amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If an SWR meter
reads 150 W of incident power and 50 W of reflected power, that means that 100 W have
actually been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission line losses). How much of that
power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical
measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but would require (for instance) careful
measurement of field strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conductors such as
aluminum rods can be calculated and the efficiency of an antenna using such materials
predicted.
However loss resistance will generally affect the feedpoint impedance, adding to its resistive
(real) component. That resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance Rr and the
loss resistance Rloss. If an rms current I is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a
power of I2Rr will be radiated and a power of I2Rloss will be lost as heat. Therefore the
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efficiency of an antenna is equal to Rr / (Rr + Rloss). Of course only the total resistance Rr +
Rloss can be directly measured.
Amount of atmospheric noise at various elevation angles versus frequency according CCIR
322According to reciprocity, the efficiency of an antenna, when used as a receiving antenna, is
identical to the efficiency as defined above. The power that an antenna will deliver to a
receiver (with a proper impedance match) is reduced by the same amount. However often in a
receiving application, inefficiency of an antenna may be of lesser consequence or even of no
consequence, notably at lower frequencies or when used to receive signals in "crowded"
bands. That is true in cases where the received signal competes not against receiver noise, but
against atmospheric noise or interference received by the antenna itself. The loss within the
antenna will affect the intended signal and the noise/interference identically, leading to no
reduction in signal to noise ratio (SNR). According to the graph shown illustrating the
frequency dependence of atmospheric and man-made noise, one can see that using a
receiving antenna with an efficiency of only 10% at frequencies below 10 MHz will still supply a
signal to the receiver which includes noise well above the thermal limit. A decent RF amplifier
in the receiver will not significantly add to this noise level or reduce the resulting SNR.
This is fortunate, since antennas at lower frequencies which are not rather large (a good
fraction of a wavelength in size) are inevitably inefficient (due to the small radiation resistance
Rr of small antennas). Most AM broadcast radios (except for car radios) take advantage of this
principle by including a small loop antenna for reception which has an extremely poor
efficiency. Using such an inefficient antenna at this low frequency (530–1650 kHz) thus has
little effect on the receiver's net performance, but simply requires greater amplification by the
receiver's electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive and very tall towers used at
AM broadcast stations for transmitting at the very same frequency, where every percentage
point of reduced antenna efficiency entails a substantial cost.
The definition of antenna gain or power gain already includes the effect of the antenna's
efficiency. Therefore if one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using a transmitter of
a given power, one need only compare the gain of various antennas rather than considering
the efficiency as well. This is likewise true for a receiving antenna at very high (especially
microwave) frequencies, where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the
receiver's noise temperature. However in the case of a directional antenna used for receiving
signals with the intention of rejecting interference from different directions, one is no longer
concerned with the antenna efficiency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than quoting
the antenna gain, one would be more concerned with the directive gain which does not
include the effect of antenna (in)efficiency. The directive gain of an antenna can be computed
from the published gain divided by the antenna's efficiency.
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[edit] PolarizationThe polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (Eplane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical
structure of the antenna and by its orientation. It has nothing in common with antenna
directionality terms: "horizontal", "vertical" and "circular". Thus, a simple straight wire antenna
will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization when
mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic wave polarization filters"[citation needed] are
structures which can be employed to act directly on the electromagnetic wave to filter out
wave energy of an undesired polarization and to pass wave energy of a desired polarization.
Reflections generally affect polarization. For radio waves the most important reflector is the
ionosphere - signals which reflect from it will have their polarization changed unpredictably.
For signals which are reflected by the ionosphere, polarization cannot be relied upon. For lineof-sight communications for which polarization can be relied upon, it can make a large
difference in signal quality to have the transmitter and receiver using the same polarization;
many tens of dB difference are commonly seen and this is more than enough to make the
difference between reasonable communication and a broken link.
Polarization is largely predictable from antenna construction but, especially in directional
antennas, the polarization of side lobes can be quite different from that of the main
propagation lobe. For radio antennas, polarization corresponds to the orientation of the
radiating element in an antenna. A vertical omnidirectional WiFi antenna will have vertical
polarization (the most common type). An exception is a class of elongated waveguide antennas
in which vertically placed antennas are horizontally polarized. Many commercial antennas are
marked as to the polarization of their emitted signals.
Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected onto an imaginary
plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most general case,
polarization is elliptical, meaning that the polarization of the radio waves varies over time. Two
special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse collapses into a line) and circular polarization
(in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal). In linear polarization the antenna compels the
electric field of the emitted radio wave to a particular orientation. Depending on the
orientation of the antenna mounting, the usual linear cases are horizontal and vertical
polarization. In circular polarization, the antenna continuously varies the electric field of the
radio wave through all possible values of its orientation with regard to the Earth's surface.
Circular polarizations, like elliptical ones, are classified as right-hand polarized or left-hand
polarized using a "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule. Optical researchers use the
same rule of thumb, but pointing it in the direction of the emitter, not in the direction of
propagation, and so are opposite to radio engineers' use.
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In practice, regardless of confusing terminology, it is important that linearly polarized antennas
be matched, lest the received signal strength be greatly reduced. So horizontal should be used
with horizontal and vertical with vertical. Intermediate matchings will lose some signal
strength, but not as much as a complete mismatch. Transmitters mounted on vehicles with
large motional freedom commonly use circularly polarized antennas[citation needed] so that
there will never be a complete mismatch with signals from other sources.
[edit] Impedance matchingMain article: Impedance matching
Maximum power transfer requires matching the impedance of an antenna system (as seen
looking into the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the impedance of the receiver
or transmitter. In the case of a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance might
not correspond to the dynamic output impedance of the transmitter as analyzed as a source
impedance but rather the design value (typically 50 ohms) required for efficient and safe
operation of the transmitting circuitry. The intended impedance is normally resistive but a
transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional adjustments to cancel a certain amount
of reactance in order to "tweak" the match. When a transmission line is used in between the
antenna and the transmitter (or receiver) one generally would like an antenna system whose
impedance is resistive and near the characteristic impedance of that transmission line in order
to minimize the standing wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in transmission line losses it
entails, in addition to supplying a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself.
Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna
terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the desired
impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a
purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a half wavelength long) this
might not be exactly true at the frequency that it is eventually used at. In some cases the
physical length of the antenna can be "trimmed" to obtain a pure resistance. On the other
hand, the addition of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used to cancel a
residual capacitative or inductive reactance, respectively.
In some cases this is done in a more extreme manner, not simply to cancel a small amount of
residual reactance, but to resonate an antenna whose resonance frequency is quite different
than the intended frequency of operation. For instance, a "whip antenna" can be made
significantly shorter than 1/4 wavelength long, for practical reasons, and then resonated using
a so-called loading coil. This physically large inductor at the base of the antenna has an
inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical
antenna has at the desired operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at
feedpoint of the loading coil; unfortunately that resistance is somewhat lower than would be
desired to match commercial coax[citation needed].
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So an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching the
remaining resistive impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. In
principle this can always be done with a transformer, however the turns ratio of a transformer
is not adjustable. A general matching network with at least two adjustments can be made to
correct both components of impedance. Matching networks using discrete inductors and
capacitors will have losses associated with those components, and will have power restrictions
when used for transmitting. Avoiding these difficulties, commercial antennas are generally
designed with fixed matching elements and/or feeding strategies to get an approximate match
to standard coax, such as 50 or 75 Ohms. Antennas based on the dipole (rather than vertical
antennas) should include a balun in between the transmission line and antenna element,
which may be integrated into any such matching network.
Another extreme case of impedance matching occurs when using a small loop antenna
(usually, but not always, for receiving) at a relatively low frequency where it appears almost as
a pure inductor. Resonating such an inductor with a capacitor at the frequency of operation
not only cancels the reactance but greatly magnifies the very small radiation resistance of such
a loop[citation needed]. This is implemented in most AM broadcast receivers, with a small
ferrite loop antenna resonated by a capacitor which is varied along with the receiver tuning in
order to maintain resonance over the AM broadcast band
[edit] Basic antenna models
Typical US multiband TV antenna (aerial)There are many variations of antennas. Below are a
few basic models. More can be found in Category:Radio frequency antenna types.
The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all directions. It is
considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This antenna cannot
physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with all other antennas.
Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic radiator, and are rated in
dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).
The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end
hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a reference
model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd. Generally, the dipole
is considered to be omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the antenna, but it
has deep nulls in the directions of the axis. Variations of the dipole include the folded dipole,
the half wave antenna, the ground plane antenna, the whip, and the J-pole.
The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements added
which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to focus a filament
light bulb.
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The random wire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter wavelength[citation
needed]) wire with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in
any way most convenient for the space available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make
theoretical analysis extremely difficult. (The added length helps more than the folding typically
hurts.) Typically, a random wire antenna will also require an antenna tuner, as it might have a
random impedance that varies non-linearly with frequency.
The horn antenna is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave) and
space is not an issue. Horns can be narrow band or wide band, depending on their shape. A
horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically impractical.
Horns are also frequently used as reference antennas.
The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector to
reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave
applications, such as satellite dishes.
The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a groundplane.
Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-antenna.
[edit] Practical antennas
"Rabbit ears" set-top antennaAlthough any circuit can radiate if driven with a signal of high
enough frequency, most practical antennas are specially designed to radiate efficiently at a
particular frequency. An example of an inefficient antenna is the simple Hertzian dipole
antenna, which radiates over wide range of frequencies and is useful[citation needed] for its
small size. A more efficient variation of this is the half-wave dipole, which radiates with high
efficiency when the signal wavelength is twice the electrical length of the antenna.
One of the goals of antenna design is to minimize the reactance of the device so that it appears
as a resistive load. An "antenna inherent reactance" includes not only the distributed
reactance of the active antenna but also the natural reactance due to its location and
surroundings (as for example, the capacity relation inherent in the position of the active
antenna relative to ground). Reactance can be eliminated by operating the antenna at its
resonant frequency, when its capacitive and inductive reactances are equal and opposite,
resulting in a net zero reactive current. If this is not possible, compensating inductors or
capacitors can instead be added to the antenna to cancel its reactance as far as the source is
concerned.
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Once the reactance has been eliminated, what remains is a pure resistance, which is the sum
of two parts: the ohmic resistance of the conductors, and the radiation resistance. Power
absorbed by the ohmic resistance becomes waste heat, and that absorbed by the radiation
resistance becomes radiated electromagnetic energy. The greater the ratio of radiation
resistance to ohmic resistance, the more efficient the antenna.
[edit] Effect of groundAntennas are typically used in an environment where other objects are
present that may have an effect on their performance. Height above ground has a very
significant effect on the radiation pattern of some antenna types.
At frequencies used in antennas, the ground behaves mainly as a dielectric[citation needed].
The conductivity of ground at these frequencies is negligible. When an electromagnetic wave
arrives at the surface of an object, two waves are created: one enters the dielectric and the
other is reflected. If the object is a conductor, the transmitted wave is negligible and the
reflected wave has almost the same amplitude as the incident one. When the object is a
dielectric, the fraction reflected depends (among others things) on the angle of incidence.
When the angle of incidence is small (that is, the wave arrives almost perpendicularly) most of
the energy traverses the surface and very little is reflected. When the angle of incidence is
near 90° (grazing incidence) almost all the wave is reflected.
Most of the electromagnetic waves emitted by an antenna to the ground below the antenna at
moderate (say < 60°) angles of incidence enter the earth and are absorbed (lost). But waves
emitted to the ground at grazing angles, far from the antenna, are almost totally reflected. At
grazing angles, the ground behaves as a mirror. Quality of reflection depends on the nature of
the surface. When the irregularities of the surface are smaller than the wavelength reflection is
good.
The wave reflected by earth can be considered as emitted by the image antennaThis means
that the receptor "sees" the real antenna and, under the ground, the image of the antenna
reflected by the ground. If the ground has irregularities, the image will appear fuzzy.
If the receiver is placed at some height above the ground, waves reflected by ground will travel
a little longer distance to arrive to the receiver than direct waves. The distance will be the
same only if the receiver is close to ground.
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In the drawing at right, we have drawn the angle far bigger than in reality. Distance between
the antenna and its image is .
The situation is a bit more complex because the reflection of electromagnetic waves depends
on the polarization of the incident wave. As the refractive index of the ground (average value )
is bigger than the refractive index of the air (), the direction of the component of the electric
field parallel to the ground inverses at the reflection. This is equivalent to a phase shift of
radians or 180°. The vertical component of the electric field reflects without changing
direction. This sign inversion of the parallel component and the non-inversion of the
perpendicular component would also happen if the ground were a good electrical conductor.
The vertical component of the current reflects without changing sign. The horizontal
component reverses sign at reflection.This means that a receiving antenna "sees" the image
antenna with the current in the same direction if the antenna is vertical or with the current
inverted if the antenna is horizontal.
For a vertical polarized emission antenna the far electric field of the electromagnetic wave
produced by the direct ray plus the reflected ray is:
The sign inversion for the parallel field case just changes a cosine to a sine:
In these two equations:
is the electrical field radiated by the antenna if there were no ground.
is the wave number.
is the wave length.
is the distance between antenna and its image (twice the height of the center of the antenna).
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Radiation patterns of antennas and their images reflected by the ground. At left the
polarization is vertical and there is always a maximum for . If the polarization is horizontal as at
right, there is always a zero for .For emitting and receiving antenna situated near the ground
(in a building or on a mast) far from each other, distances traveled by direct and reflected rays
are nearly the same. There is no induced phase shift. If the emission is polarized vertically the
two fields (direct and reflected) add and there is maximum of received signal. If the emission is
polarized horizontally the two signals subtracts and the received signal is minimum. This is
depicted in the image at right. In the case of vertical polarization, there is always a maximum
at earth level (left pattern). For horizontal polarization, there is always a minimum at earth
level. Note that in these drawings the ground is considered as a perfect mirror, even for low
angles of incidence. In these drawings the distance between the antenna and its image is just a
few wavelengths. For greater distances, the number of lobes increases.
Note that the situation is different–and more complex–if reflections in the ionosphere occur.
This happens over very long distances (thousands of kilometers). There is not a direct ray but
several reflected rays that add with different phase shifts.
This is the reason why almost all public address radio emissions have vertical polarization. As
public users are near ground, horizontal polarized emissions would be poorly received.
Observe household and automobile radio receivers. They all have vertical antennas or
horizontal ferrite antennas for vertical polarized emissions. In cases where the receiving
antenna must work in any position, as in mobile phones, the emitter and receivers in base
stations use circular polarized electromagnetic waves.
Classical (analog) television emissions are an exception. They are almost always horizontally
polarized, because the presence of buildings makes it unlikely that a good emitter antenna
image will appear[citation needed]. However, these same buildings reflect the electromagnetic
waves and can create ghost images. Using horizontal polarization, reflections are attenuated
because of the low reflection of electromagnetic waves whose magnetic field is parallel to the
dielectric surface near the Brewster's angle. Vertically polarized analog television has been
used in some rural areas. In digital terrestrial television reflections are less obtrusive, due to
the inherent robustness of digital signalling and built-in error correction.
[edit] Mutual impedance and interaction between antennas
Mutual impedance between parallel dipoles not staggered. Curves Re and Im are the resistive
and reactive parts of the impedance.Current circulating in any antenna induces currents in all
others. One can postulate a mutual impedance between two antennas that has the same
significance as the in ordinary coupled inductors. The mutual impedance between two
antennas is defined as:
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where is the current flowing in antenna 1 and is the voltage that would have to be applied to
antenna 2–with antenna 1 removed–to produce the current in the antenna 2 that was
produced by antenna 1.
From this definition, the currents and voltages applied in a set of coupled antennas are:
where:
is the voltage applied to the antenna i
is the impedance of antenna i
is the mutual impedance between antennas i and j
Note that, as is the case for mutual inductances,
This is a consequence of Lorentz reciprocity. If some of the elements are not fed (there is a
short circuit instead a feeder cable), as is the case in television antennas (Yagi-Uda antennas),
the corresponding are zero. Those elements are called parasitic elements. Parasitic elements
are unpowered elements that either reflect or absorb and reradiate RF energy.
In some geometrical settings, the mutual impedance between antennas can be zero. This is the
case for crossed dipoles used in circular polarization antennas.
[edit] Antenna gallery
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