Rebellion in Spanish America – Context Setting
In the 1500s, Europeans began to conquer native civilizations in the Americas, claiming
territories in the Americas for European nations. Soon after conquering the native peoples, the
Europeans established colonies (settlements) in the Americas. South America was colonized
mostly by the Spanish, who brought great changes to northern, southern, and western South
America.
The social and cultural changes in South America were enormous. The mixing of peoples
– Native Americans, Europeans, and the African slaves brought by the Europeans – resulted in
the creation of new ethnic groups (mestizaje). A clear social hierarchy (ranking of peoples)
developed, with the pure-blooded Spaniards at the top and the African slaves at the bottom. The
Spaniards introduced new forms of culture to the people of the Americas, exposing them to
Spanish art, architecture, and customs. The dominant religion in Spain was Catholicism, and the
Spanish settlers included Catholic missionaries who brought, and sometimes forced, Catholicism
on Native Americans and African slaves.
The economic and political changes brought by the Spanish created much resentment (hatred)
within the colonies. The Spanish set up colonial governments run by Spaniards. Native
Americans, blacks, and American-born people of Spanish descent were not allowed to have
significant roles in the government, yet
were expected to follow the laws set up by
the Spanish. The inhabitants of the
colonies, no matter their ethnic or racial
background, were expected to help
expand the colonies’ economy and pay
taxes to Spain.
The
Spanish
set
up
trade
restrictions
that
favored
Spanish
businesses and the Spanish government.
All trade had to be conducted through
Spain; in other words, the colonies could
not trade directly with each other or with
other countries. In addition, colonists were
not allowed to open factories that would
compete with those in Spain. The
combination of resentment towards
Spanish rule and the spread of
Enlightenment ideas – including selfgovernment and the protection of
individual rights – eventually pushed the
people of South America to fight for
independence from Spain. By 1830, all of
Spanish-America
had
won
its
independence from Spain and more
inclusive and democratic governments
were established.
SOCIAL HIERARCHY IN THE SPANISH AMERICAS
1) Peninsulares—those born in Spain. Peninsulares
were wealthy (rich) and well-educated. They controlled
the Spanish colonies’ economy and government as
well as the Catholic Church in the colonies.
2) Creoles—pureblooded Spaniards, born in the
colonies. Creoles were also wealthy and welleducated. Legally (according to law), creoles had the
same standing as the peninsulares, but were
overlooked by the leaders of Spain when choices were
made about who would hold important jobs in the
colonial government and Catholic Church in the
colonies.
The Spanish settlers in America, known as
peninsulares, were at the top of a very rigid
(unchanging) social hierarchy. While the
pensinsulares made up less than one percent
of the population, they were in charge of the
government, the economy, and the Catholic
Church in the colonies. The colonial social
hierarchy was in place very early on, as can be
seen in the writings of José de Acosta, a
Spanish priest who commented in 1585 on
castas, or social classes, in Peru:
Throughout this realm [territory] there are many
blacks, mulattos, mestizos, and many other
mixtures of people, and every day their number
increases…Those [Spaniards] who reflect
[think] on this matter with care fear that in time
the number of these [castas] ill become much
larger than that of the children of Spaniards
born here (who are called creoles)…and that
therefore they will be able to raise as a city in
revolt…
In fact, the creoles were the driving force
behind the majority of revolts and revolutions
that took place in the Spanish colonies in the
1800s. While other groups of people resented
(hated) Spanish rule, the creoles’ resentment
of the fact that they were second-class citizens
pushed them to rebel.
3) Mestizos—people of mixed Native American and
Spanish descent. As time wore on, mestizos became
the largest percentage of the population in the Spanish
colonies. Most mestizos were farmers, artisans, or
shop owners. Other mestizos held management
positions in mines or on plantations.
4) Mulattos— people of mixed European and African
descent. Most mulattos worked as servants or in small
businesses.
5) Native Americans—descendants of those people
who had been living in South America before the
arrival of the Spanish. While some Native Americans
worked for peninsulares and creoles, others were
independent farmers. Although many Native
Americans continued to speak their own languages
and practice their own traditions, most became
Catholics.
6) Free blacks—this category included former African
slaves (or slaves of African descent) and their children.
Some free blacks bought their freedom, while others
were freed by their former owners. Most free blacks
worked on farms or as laborers.
7) Slaves—African slaves or slaves of African descent.
Slaves in the Spanish colonies did have some rights,
including the right to marry and the right to own
property. Slaves could also buy their freedom. Most
slaves became Catholics.
Bolivar and San Martín
People all over the South American continent were influenced by the beliefs and actions of
key revolutionary heroes, including Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.
Simón Bolívar, also known as “The Liberator,” played an important role in helping much of
northern South America gain its independence from Spain. Bolívar, a wealthy Venezuelan creole,
was greatly influenced by European ideas about democracy. When Bolívar was a young boy, his
tutor exposed him to the ideas of the Enlightenment – including self-government and individual
rights – and Bolívar furthered his knowledge of Enlightenment ideas during his travels to Europe
in the early 1800s. Bolívar believed that the Spanish peninsulares must be overthrown, but that
the people of South America, having had no practice in democracy, were not yet ready to take on
complete self-government. Bolívar had seen the first independent government of Venezuela
(which had been set up so that local governments would share power with the central
government) taken down by the Spanish in 1812, and believed that only a strong, central
government would succeed. Bolívar’s dream, which never became a reality, was to unite all of
South America into one free nation. He did succeed in liberating much of the continent from
Spain and in uniting much of northern South America as the new nation of Gran Colombia.
Another key revolutionary leader was José de San Martín, a wealthy Argentinean creole.
San Martín helped to liberate Argentina from Spain and then moved to join the Chilean
revolutionary hero, Bernardo O’Higgins, to liberate Chile. San Martín continued to move his fight
northward and contributed to Bolívar’s fight in Ecuador and Peru.
Continuing Issues
Unfortunately, most of the new South American governments struggled to develop well
organized, just, and prosperous societies. While the nations were new, the problems they faced
were not. The old social hierarchy remained in place, with the creoles instead of the peninsulares
at the top. The new nations, having developed no industry of their own under Spanish rule, were
still economically dependent on Spain and other European countries for manufactured goods.
Many of the new governments borrowed heavily from wealthier nations in order to develop
industry, only to be burdened with problems created by debt.
In February of 1819, Simón Bolívar helped to found the new nation of Gran Colombia
(which included present day Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Panama). Bolivar spoke
to the new Congress of Angostura, which had before it the task of creating a constitution for the
new nation. In his speech, known as the Angostura Address, Bolívar outlined some of his thinking
about democracy:
The Angostura Address, February 15, 1819:
…The continuation of authority [power] in a single individual has frequently been the
downfall of democratic governments. Repeated elections are essential in popular systems,
because nothing is more dangerous than allowing the same citizen to remain in power over a
long period of time...
The most perfect system of government is that which produces the greatest possible
amount of happiness, social security and political stability…Venezuela’s government is a
republican [elected] one, as it has been and must be; its foundation should be the sovereignty
[freedom] of the people: the division of powers, civil liberty [individual freedom], the abolition
[end] of slavery, monarchy and privilege. We must have equality in order to reshape, so to
speak, the human species, with its political opinions and public customs, into one single whole…
The system of government Bolívar proposed included a centralized government with four
branches:
The Congress of Angostura considered Bolívar’s recommendations but rejected the
Areopagus and changed the hereditary Senate to one in which Senators served life terms. The
right to vote was given to educated and wealthy male citizens who were known as “active
citizens.” Less educated and less wealthy men, or “passive citizens,” were not given the right to
vote.
Assessment Questions:
1. Who was the creole “Libertador” from Argentina? From Chile?
2. Although Bolívar favored democracy, he favored centralized governments (which tends
to give less autonomy to local regions and peoples). Why?
3. What major problems did newly independent nations in Latin America face?
4. Do you agree with Bolívar’s statements in the excerpt from his “Angostura Address?”
Which Enlightenment philosophers’ ideas do you see reflected in his quote?
5. What is your view of the type of government Bolívar proposed? Does it seem to match
with his statements? How so, and how not?