Thinking
Critically
Jennifer Zimmerman
Assistant Director
Academic Resource Center
Mercer University
http://faculty.mercer.edu
The Academic’s Quest
How do we move beyond what we already know?
How do we expand the domain of knowledge?
How will we know when a “discovery” or conclusion
constitutes new
knowledge?
What is the mark of truth?
Lacking a signpost for truth, those in the
knowledge business strive to find methods of
thinking and knowing that ultimately will grow the
store of known truths.
is acknowledged as the single-most reliable
platform for expanding knowledge
across each and every academic discipline.
A Critical Thinking Process Flow
Observations. From a series of observations, we establish:
Facts. From a series of facts, or from an absence of fact, we
make:
Inferences. Testing the validity of our inferences, we make:
Assumptions. From our assumptions, we form our:
Opinions. Taking our opinions, we use the principles of
logic to develop:
Arguments. And when we want to challenge the arguments
of others, we employ:
Critical Analysis
through which we challenge the observations, facts,
inferences, and so on, in the arguments that we are analyzing
(9) http://www.dartmouth.edu/%7Ecompose/faculty/pedagogies/thinking.html#elements
Critical Thinking Checklist
These critical thinking skills include
 separating relevant from irrelevant information,
 distinguishing between verifiable facts and value
claims,
 determining the credibility of a source,
 recognizing inconsistencies in a line of reasoning,
and
 determining the strength of an argument or a claim.
(1)
The Critical Thinking Tradition
From Dewey's perspective, which underlies almost all
views of thinking in the social studies, a reflective
thinker is someone who is aware of a problem and able
to bring critical judgment to that problem. He or
she understands that there is uncertainty about how
a problem may best be solved, yet is able to offer a
judgment about the problem that brings some closure
to it. That type of judgment, which Dewey referred to
as grounded or warranted assumption, is based on
criteria such as evaluation of evidence,
consideration of expert opinion, and
adequacy of argument.
(10)
How do you learn to practice a new
method of thinking?
Acquire
Skills
Develop
Dispositions or Traits
Evaluate your thinking practices according to
Standards
Skills
Categorization
Decoding significance
Clarifying meaning
Interpretation
Examining ideas
Identifying arguments
Analyzing arguments
Analysis
Assessing claims
Assessing arguments
Evaluation
Querying evidence
Conjecturing alternatives
Drawing conclusions
Inference
Stating results
Justifying procedures
Presenting arguments
Explanation
Self-examination
Self-correction
Self-regulation
(2) p7. http://www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/DEXadobe.PDF
Dispositions
Truthseeking:
A courageous desire for the best knowledge, even if such
knowledge fails to support or undermine one’s preconceptions, beliefs or self-interests.
Open-mindedness:
Tolerance for divergent views, self-monitoring for
possible bias.
Analyticity:
Demanding the application of reason and evidence, alert to
problematic situations, inclined to anticipate consequences.
Systematicity:
Valuing organization, focus and diligence to approach
problems of all levels of complexity.
CT Self-confidence:
Trusting of one’s own reasoning skills and seeing
oneself as a good thinker.
Inquisitiveness:
Curious and eager to acquire knowledge and learn
explanations even when the applications of the knowledge are not immediately present.
Maturity:
Prudence in making, suspending or revising judgment. An awareness
that multiple solutions can be acceptable. An appreciation of the need to reach closure
even in the absences of complete knowledge.
(1) p15 – paraphrase of an excerpt from The Delphi Report
Empathy
Humility
Courage
Integrity
Perseverance
Curiosity
Civility
Responsibility
(3) http://criticalthinking.org/University/intraits.html
Standards
Clear
Deep
Accurate
Broad
Precise
Logical
Relevant
Significant
(6) http://criticalthinking.org/University/unistan.html
(4) http://criticalthinking.org/University/questioningmind.htm
Edman’s
Classroom Rules
for Critical Thinkers
1. Because you are not God, it is inevitable
some of the beliefs and viewpoints you
firmly hold are completely wrong.
2. You must understand the viewpoints of those
who disagree with you before you are fully
able to understand your own viewpoints.
3. Until you can summarize another viewpoint
so well those who hold it agree with your
summary, you do not understand that
viewpoint.
(2)
Edman’s
Classroom Rules
for Critical Thinkers
4. You should always assume those who
disagree with your viewpoint are as
intelligent and as noble-minded as you
are.
5. You must be willing to seriously consider
alternative viewpoints and to change your
mind in order to be a critical thinker.
6. A retreat into relativism is a retreat away
from critical thinking. Not all viewpoints
are equally valid.
(2)
The Elements of Critical Thinking
1. All reasoning has a purpose.
2. All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
settle some question, to solve some problem.
All reasoning is based on assumptions.
All reasoning is done from some point of view.
All reasoning is based on data, information, and
evidence.
All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by,
concepts and ideas.
All reasoning contains inferences by which we draw
conclusions and give meaning to data.
All reasoning leads somewhere, has implications and
consequences.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
1. All reasoning has a purpose.
 Take time to state your purpose
clearly.
 Distinguish your purpose from
related purposes.
 Check periodically to be sure you
are still on target.
 Choose significant and realistic
purposes.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
2. All reasoning is an attempt to figure
something out, to settle some question, to
solve some problem.
 Take time to clearly and precisely state
the question at issue.
 Express the question in several ways to
clarify its meaning and scope.
 Break the question into sub questions.
 Identify if the question has one right
answer, is a matter of opinion, or
requires reasoning from more than one
point of view.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
3. All reasoning is based on
assumptions.
 Clearly identify your assumptions
and determine whether they are
justifiable.
 Consider how your assumptions
are shaping your point of view.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
4. All reasoning is done from some
point of view.
 Identify your point of view.
 Seek other points of view and
identify their strengths as well as
weaknesses.
 Strive to be fair-minded in
evaluating all points of view.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
5. All reasoning is based on data,
information and evidence.
 Restrict your claims to those supported
by the data you have.
 Search for information that opposes your
position as well as information that
supports it.
 Make sure that all information used is
clear, accurate, and relevant to the
question at issue.
 Make sure you have gathered sufficient
information.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
6. All reasoning is expressed through,
and shaped by, concepts and ideas.
 Identify key concepts and explain
them clearly.
 Consider alternative concepts or
alternative definitions to concepts.
 Make sure you are using concepts
with care and precision.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
7. All reasoning contains inferences or
interpretations by which we draw
conclusions and give meaning to
data.
 Infer only what the evidence
implies.
 Check inferences for their
consistency with each other.
 Identify assumptions which lead
you to your inferences.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
8. All reasoning leads somewhere or
has implications and
consequences.
 Trace the implications and
consequences that follow from
your reasoning.
 Search for negative as well as
positive implications.
 Consider all possible
consequences.
(5) http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html
(1)
Dawson, Roy E. Critical Thinking, Scientific Thinking, and Everyday Thinking:
Metacognition about Cognition. Academic Exchange Quarterly Fall 2000: v4 i3 p76.
Infotrac Online Library. 28 May 2002 <http://www.infotrac-college.com>.
(2)
Edman, Laird R. O. Teaching Critical Thinking: Pedagogy and Assessment. Center for
Teaching and Learning Calendar of Past Events. 28 February 2002. Mercer
University. 28 May 2002 <http://www.mercer.edu/ctl/edman.htm.>.
(3)
Edman, Laird R. O. Teaching Thinking: The state of the art [handout]. Mercer
University. 28 February 2002.
(4)
Elder, Linda and Richard Paul, University Library: The Critical Mind is a Questioning
Mind. Critical Thinking Consortium. Foundation for Critical Thinking. 28 May 2002
<http://criticalthinking.org/University/questioningmind.htm>.
(5)
Elder, Linda and Richard Paul, University Library: The Elements of Critical Thinking:
Helping Students Assess Their Thinking. Critical Thinking Consortium. Foundation for
Critical Thinking. 28 May 2002 <http://criticalthinking.org/University/helps.html>.
(6)
Elder, Linda and Richard Paul, R. University Library: Universal Intellectual Standards.
Critical Thinking Consortium. Foundation for Critical Thinking. 28 May 2002
<http://criticalthinking.org/University/unistan.html>.
(7)
Elder, Linda and Richard Paul, R. University Library: Valuable Intellectual Traits.
Critical Thinking Consortium. Foundation for Critical Thinking. 28 May 2002
<http://criticalthinking.org/University/intraits.html>.
(8)
Facione, Peter A. Executive Summary: Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert
Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction. American
Philosophical Association Dephi Research Report. 1990. The California Academic
Press. 28 May 2002 <http://www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/DEXadobe.PDF>.
(9)
Goscik, Karen. Teaching Critical Thinking: Elements of Critical Thinking.
Composition Center. 1997. Dartmouth College. 28 May 2002
<http://www.dartmouth.edu/%7Ecompose/faculty/pedagogies/thinking.html>.
(10)
Hine, Allison and Lyn Peacock. Thinking Skills to Creatively Enhance Information
Competence. Academic Exchange Quarterly Fall 2000: v4 i3 p92. Infotrac Online
Library. 28 May 2002 < http://www.infotrac-college.com>.