You Are Your Memory
Your memory stores:
• Your personal experiences
• Emotions
• Preferences/dislikes
• Motor skills
• World knowledge
• Language
Fundamentally, you as a person are derived from experiences that have been stored in your nervous system.
This is possible only because your brain has developed the capacity to store information.

Definition
“Learning is the process of acquiring new information, while memory refers to the persistence of learning in a state that can be revealed at a later time” (Squire, 1987).

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Figure 1.3 Single-trace and dualtrace theories of Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve

Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Théodule Ribot proposed that during disease of the brain, memories disappear in an orderly fashion
Ribot’s Law: Ribot also proposed that old memories are more resistant to disease/disruption than new memories.

Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Serge Korsakoff
Described the syndrome produced by alcohol now called Korsakoff’s Syndrome.
The syndrome is characterized by what we would now call anterograde amnesia —the inability to acquire new memories.
During the late stages there is also retrograde amnesia —the loss of memories acquired before the onset of the disease.
He also proposed that amnesia could be due to either storage failure or retrieval failure.

Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
William James proposed that memories emerge in stages. An after image is supported by a very shortlasting trace, then replaced by the primary trace that also decays. Secondary memory is viewed as the reservoir of enduring memory trace that with an appropriate retrieval cue can be recalled.

Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
The Neuron Doctrine : The idea that the brain is made up of discrete cells called nerve cells, each delimited by an external membrane.
The Synaptic Plasticity hypothesis : The idea that the strength of a synaptic connection can be modified by experience.

Figure 1.8 Pavlovian conditioning is widely used to study learning and memory in animals
Ivan P. Pavlov
 Developed the fundamental methodology for studying associative learning in animals.

Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Edward L. Thorndike
Developed the first methodology for studying how we learn about the consequences of our actions
= Instrumental conditioning (Thorndikian conditioning)
The Law of Effect : The correct behavior was learned because the consequences of successful outcome (a satisfying state) strengthened connections between the stimulus (S) and correct response (R) and the consequence of unsuccessful responses (annoying state) weaken the competing and wrong S –R connections.

Figure 1.9 Edward L. Thorndike invented the methodology for studying instrumental learning

WHO WAS…
• Herman Ebbinghaus?
• Theodule Ribot?
• Serge Korsakoff?
• William James?
• Santiago Ramón y Cajal?
• Ivan P. Pavlov?
• Edward L. Thorndike?

DEFINITIONS
• Declarative memory (explicit)
 Knowledge to which we have conscious access, including personal and world knowledge
• Nondeclarative memory (implicit)
 Knowledge to which we typically have no concious access, such as motor and cognitive skills

DEFINITIONS
• Episodic memory
 Stored information about events in one’s life, including information about when they happened and what happened
• Semantic memory
 A category of memory that is believed to support memory for facts and the ability to extract generalizations across experiences

DEFINITIONS
• Procedural memory
 A form of non-declarative memory that involves the learning of a variety of motor skills and cognitive skills (e.g., how to ride a bike or how to read)
• Perceptual representation system
 A courier network that delivers sensory information to the CNS to control muscles of the body; anything outside the brain and spinal cord

TYPES OF MEMORY
Type of memory
Sensory
Time course Capacity Conscious Awareness? Mechanisms of Loss ms-s high no Primarily Decay
Short-term and working s-min limited
Long-term nondeclarative days-years high
Long-term declarative days-years high yes no yes
Primarily Decay
Primarily Interference
Primarily Interference
*TABLE 8.1 page 314

W. W. Norton

• Declarative or explicit memory is knowledge that
• a. one can access consciously.
• b. one cannot access consciously.
• c. is a form of sensory memory.
• d. is a form of short-term memory.

• Declarative or explicit memory is knowledge that
• a. one can access consciously.
• b. one cannot access consciously.
• c. is a form of sensory memory.
• d. is a form of short-term memory.

• Barbara remembers that Madrid is the capital of Spain, but she has no idea when or where she acquired this knowledge. Her
________ memory is accurate, but her
________ memory is incomplete.
• a. semantic / episodic
• b. nonassociative / semantic
• c. episodic / implicit
• d. explicit / implicit

• Barbara remembers that Madrid is the capital of Spain, but she has no idea when or where she acquired this knowledge. Her
________ memory is accurate, but her
________ memory is incomplete.
• a. semantic / episodic
• b. nonassociative / semantic
• c. episodic / implicit
• d. explicit / implicit

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

W. W. Norton

THE ATKINSON AND SHRIFFINMODAL MODEL OF MEMORY

• ________ is the process of acquiring new information, whereas ________ is the trace that results from this process and can be revealed at a later time.
• a. Recall / recognition
• b. Recognition / recall
• c. Learning / memory
• d. Memory / learning

• ________ is the process of acquiring new information, whereas ________ is the trace that results from this process and can be revealed at a later time.
• a. Recall / recognition
• b. Recognition / recall
• c. Learning / memory
• d. Memory / learning

• ___ refers to the processing of incoming information to be stored.
• a. Retrieval
• b. Recall
• c. Encoding
• d. Explicit memory

• ___ refers to the processing of incoming information to be stored.
• a. Retrieval
• b. Recall
• c. Encoding
• d. Explicit memory

• The encoding of information to be stored involves two stages: ________, in which inputs in sensory buffers and sensory analysis stages are registered, and then ________, in which a stronger representation for storage is created.
• a. consolidation / storage
• b. storage / retrieval
• c.
retrieval / acquisition
• d. acquisition / consolidation

• The encoding of information to be stored involves two stages: ________, in which inputs in sensory buffers and sensory analysis stages are registered, and then ________, in which a stronger representation for storage is created.
• a. consolidation / storage
• b. storage / retrieval
• c.
retrieval / acquisition
• d.
acquisition / consolidation

• Research using the mismatch field (MMF), which is the magnetic equivalent of the mismatch negativity (MMN), has suggested that auditory sensory memory has a duration of about
• a. 10 milliseconds.
• b. 100 milliseconds.
• c. 1 second.
• d. 10 seconds.

• Research using the mismatch field (MMF), which is the magnetic equivalent of the mismatch negativity (MMN), has suggested that auditory sensory memory has a duration of about
• a. 10 milliseconds.
• b. 100 milliseconds.
• c. 1 second.
• d. 10 seconds .

• According to the modal model of memory, information that is currently held within short-term memory originates from
• a. sensory memory.
• b. working memory.
• c. both sensory and working memory.
• d. neither sensory nor working memory.

• According to the modal model of memory, information that is currently held within short-term memory originates from
• a. sensory memory.
• b. working memory.
• c. both sensory and working memory.
• d. neither sensory nor working memory.

• Which of the following best describes the flow of information in the Atkinson and
Shiffrin modal model of memory?
• a.
Shortterm storage → long-term storage → sensory memory
• b. Short-term storage → sensory memory → long-term storage
• c.
Sensory memory→short-term storage
→long-term storage
• d. Sensory memory→long-term storage
→short-term storage

• Which of the following best describes the flow of information in the Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968) modal model of memory?
• a.
Shortterm storage → long-term storage → sensory memory
• b. Short-term storage → sensory memory → long-term storage
• c.
Sensory memory→short-term storage
→long-term storage
• d. Sensory memory→long-term storage
→short-term storage

• Which of the following statements concerning types of memory in the modal model of memory is FALSE?
• a.
At any moment, there is more information in sensory memory than in short-term memory.
• b.
Some contents of sensory memory are selected via attention and next processed in long-term memory.
• c.
Sensory memory has a briefer duration than shortterm memory.
• d.
Long-term memory has a longer duration than sensory memory.

• Which of the following statements concerning types of memory in the modal model of memory is FALSE?
• a.
At any moment, there is more information in sensory memory than in short-term memory.
• b.
Some contents of sensory memory are selected via attention and next processed in long-term memory.
• c.
Sensory memory has a briefer duration than shortterm memory.
• d.
Long-term memory has a longer duration than sensory memory.

• The term ________ refers to a limitedcapacity store that not only retains information over the short term
(maintenance) but also permits the performance of mental operations with the contents of this store (manipulation).
• a. working memory
• b. short-term memory
• c. sensory memory
• d. long-term memory

• The term ________ refers to a limitedcapacity store that not only retains information over the short term
(maintenance) but also permits the performance of mental operations with the contents of this store (manipulation).
• a. working memory
• b. short-term memory
• c. sensory memory
• d. long-term memory

Henry Gustav Molaison (1926 – 2008)

HOW DO WE KNOW LONG-TERM MEMORIES MUST
BE CONSOLIDATED OVER TIME?

The Chemical Basis of LTP: Antagonizing NMDA receptors block the induction of
LTP, not the expression of LTP

Long-Term Depression:
The Polar Opposite of Long-Term Potentiation

Figure 3.1 First messengers carry information between neurons; second messengers carry the signal into the neuron

The Dynamic Life of AMPA Receptors

• Classical conditioning is an example of a specific type of ________ memory.
• a. priming
• b. semantic
• c. episodic
• d. nondeclarative

• Classical conditioning is an example of a specific type of ________ memory.
• a. priming
• b. semantic
• c. episodic
• d. nondeclarative

• ________ does NOT affect behavior consciously and can be measured only indirectly.
• a. Nondeclarative memory
• b. Declarative memory
• c. Episodic memory
• d. Explicit memory

• ________ does NOT affect behavior consciously and can be measured only indirectly.
• a. Nondeclarative memory
• b. Declarative memory
• c. Episodic memory
• d. Explicit memory

• ________ is the improvement in processing a stimulus as the result of previously having been exposed to that stimulus.
• a. Nonassociative learning
• b. Procedural learning
• c. Priming
• d. Conditioning

• ________ is the improvement in processing a stimulus as the result of previously having been exposed to that stimulus.
• a. Nonassociative learning
• b. Procedural learning
• c. Priming
• d. Conditioning

• Deficits in memory as a function of brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma are known collectively as
• a. aphasia.
• b. agnosia.
• c. anomia.
• d. amnesia.

• Deficits in memory as a function of brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma are known collectively as
• a. aphasia.
• b. agnosia.
• c. anomia.
• d. amnesia.

• A 1957 study of patients who had undergone removal of the medial temporal lobe for the treatment of epilepsy suggested that
• a. the removal of either the right or the left medial temporal lobe results in profound amnesia.
• b. greater amnesia is associated with the removal of the left medial temporal lobe.
• c.
greater amnesia is associated with the removal of the right medial temporal lobe.
• d. profound amnesia is associated only with bilateral medial temporal lobe removal.

• A 1957 study of patients who had undergone removal of the medial temporal lobe for the treatment of epilepsy suggested that
• a. the removal of either the right or the left medial temporal lobe results in profound amnesia.
• b. greater amnesia is associated with the removal of the left medial temporal lobe.
• c.
greater amnesia is associated with the removal of the right medial temporal lobe.
• d.
profound amnesia is associated only with bilateral medial temporal lobe removal.

• Which of the following would be the MOST difficult for the famous Patient H.M. and other patients with medial temporal lobe removal?
• a. Reading a string of numbers written on a piece of paper
• b. Remembering a series of seven numbers for
20 seconds
• c.
Learning the words for numbers in a foreign language
• d. Improving in the ability to write numbers with the nondominant hand

• Which of the following would be the MOST difficult for the famous Patient H.M. and other patients with medial temporal lobe removal?
• a. Reading a string of numbers written on a piece of paper
• b. Remembering a series of seven numbers for
20 seconds
• c.
Learning the words for numbers in a foreign language
• d. Improving in the ability to write numbers with the nondominant hand

• Which brain structure is located in the medial temporal lobe and is of particular importance in the formation of new longterm memories?
• a. The hypothalamus
• b. The colliculus
• c. The hippocampus
• d. The caudate

• Which brain structure is located in the medial temporal lobe and is of particular importance in the formation of new longterm memories?
• a. The hypothalamus
• b. The colliculus
• c. The hippocampus
• d. The caudate

• How are the cognitive (memory) deficits suffered both by Patient H.M. and by people with
Korsakoff’s syndrome similar?
• a. Both suffer from severe retrograde amnesia but not anterograde amnesia.
• b. Both suffer from severe anterograde amnesia that is limited to declarative memory.
• c.
Both suffer from severe working memory deficits.
• d. Both suffer from brain damage related to severe epilepsy.

• How are the cognitive (memory) deficits suffered both by Patient H.M. and by people with
Korsakoff’s syndrome similar?
• a. Both suffer from severe retrograde amnesia but not anterograde amnesia.
• b.
Both suffer from severe anterograde amnesia that is limited to declarative memory.
• c.
Both suffer from severe working memory deficits.
• d. Both suffer from brain damage related to severe epilepsy.

• It appears that the medial temporal lobes and the diencephalon are important in consolidating explicit longterm memories but are not themselves the storage sites for this knowledge because
• a.
most skills and habits acquired before injury of these structures will remain intact.
• b.
only priming and conditioning show signs of impairment following damage to these structures.
• c.
only nonassociative learning and priming show signs of impairment following damage to these structures.
• d.
most episodic and semantic memories acquired before injury of these structures will remain intact.

• It appears that the medial temporal lobes and the diencephalon are important in consolidating explicit longterm memories but are not themselves the storage sites for this knowledge because
• a.
most skills and habits acquired before injury of these structures will remain intact.
• b.
only priming and conditioning show signs of impairment following damage to these structures.
• c.
only nonassociative learning and priming show signs of impairment following damage to these structures.
• d.
most episodic and semantic memories acquired before injury of these structures will remain intact.

• Long-term potentiation does NOT occur unless the neurotransmitter ________ is present in the synapse to bind to postsynaptic NMDA receptors.
• a. GABA
• b. norepinephrine
• c. serotonin
• d. glutamate

• Long-term potentiation does NOT occur unless the neurotransmitter ________ is present in the synapse to bind to postsynaptic NMDA receptors.
• a. GABA
• b. norepinephrine
• c. serotonin
• d. glutamate

• Imagine that a new drug is discovered that acts by depleting the brain of free magnesium ions.
How would this drug affect long-term potentiation
(LTP)?
• a. The amount of LTP would increase.
• b. The amount of LTP would decrease.
• c.
The amount of LTP would not change.
• d. The amount of LTP would first decrease, then increase.

• Imagine that a new drug is discovered that acts by depleting the brain of free magnesium ions.
How would this drug affect long-term potentiation
(LTP)?
• a.
The amount of LTP would increase.
• b. The amount of LTP would decrease.
• c.
The amount of LTP would not change.
• d. The amount of LTP would first decrease, then increase.

• Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the role of NMDA receptors in mediating LTP in the brain?
• a.
NMDA receptors are critical to inducing LTP but not to maintaining LTP.
• b.
NMDA receptors block LTP in the brain unless magnesium ions are present.
• c.
NMDA receptors are depolarized by the binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
• d.
NMDA receptors create LTP by transporting magnesium ions from outside the cell into the cell
.

• Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the role of NMDA receptors in mediating LTP in the brain?
• a.
NMDA receptors are critical to inducing LTP but not to maintaining LTP.
• b.
NMDA receptors block LTP in the brain unless magnesium ions are present.
• c.
NMDA receptors are depolarized by the binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
• d.
NMDA receptors create LTP by transporting magnesium ions from outside the cell into the cell
.