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Constitutional Democracy:
1. Direct democracy – Government in which citizens vote on laws and select officials directly.
2. Representative democracy – Government in which the people elect those who govern and pass laws; also
called a republic.
3. Constitutional democracy – A government that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows
the voice of the people to be heard through free, fair, and relatively frequent elections.
4. Constitutionalism – The set of arrangements, including checks and balances, federalism, separation of
powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, that requires our leaders to listen, think, bargain, and
explain before they act or make laws. We then hold them politically and legally accountable for how they
exercise their powers.
5. Statism – The idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals who make up the
nation.
6. Popular consent – The idea that a just government must derive its powers from the consent of the people it
governs.
7. Majority rule – Governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority.
8. Majority – The candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election.
9. Plurality – Candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half.
10. Theocracy – Government by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance.
11. Articles of Confederation – The first governing document of the confederated states drafted in 1777, ratified
in 1781, and replaced by the present Constitution in 1789.
12. Annapolis Convention – A convention held in September 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation,
attended by five states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became
the Constitutional Convention.
13. Constitutional Convention – The convention in Philadelphia, May 25 to September 17, 1787, that debated
and agreed upon the Constitution of the United States.
14. Shays’s Rebellion – Rebellion led by Daniel Shays of farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787,
protesting mortgage foreclosures. It highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for
the Constitutional Convention went out.
15. Bicameralism – The principle of a two-house legislature.
16. Virginia Plan – Initial proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by the Virginia delegation for a strong
central government with a bicameral legislature dominated by the big states.
17. New Jersey Plan – Proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a
central government with a single-house legislature in which each state would be represented equally.
18. Connecticut Compromise – Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutional Convention for a
bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper
house in which each state would have two senators.
19. Three-fifths compromise – Compromise between northern and southern states at the Constitutional
Convention that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and
representation in the House of Representatives.
20. Federalists – Supporters of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government.
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21. Antifederalists – Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government, generally.
22. The Federalist – Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander
Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788.
The Living Constitution:
23. Natural law – God’s or nature’s law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law.
24. Separation of powers – Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the
judiciary interpreting the law.
25. Checks and balances – Constitutional grant of powers that enables each of the three branches of
government to check some acts of the others and therefore ensure that no branch can dominate.
26. Divided government – Governance divided between the parties, especially when one holds the presidency
and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.
27. Direct primary – Election in which voters choose party nominees.
28. Initiative – Procedure whereby a certain number of voters may, by petition, propose a law or constitutional
amendment and have it submitted to the voters.
29. Referendum – Procedure for submitting to popular vote measures passed by the legislature or proposed
amendments to a state constitution.
30. Recall – Procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their
term.
31. Marbury v. Madison - A landmark case in United States law and the basis for the exercise of judicial review in
the United States, under Article Three of the United States Constitution. The case resulted from a petition to
the Supreme Court by William Marbury, who had been appointed as Justice of the Peace in the District of
Columbia by President John Adams shortly before leaving office, but whose commission was not delivered as
required by John Marshall, Adams's Secretary of State. When Thomas Jefferson assumed office, he ordered
the new Secretary of State, James Madison, to withhold Marbury's and several other men's commissions.
Marbury and three others petitioned the Court to force Madison to deliver the commission to Marbury. The
Supreme Court denied Marbury's petition, holding that the statute upon which he based his claim was
unconstitutional.
32. Judicial review – The power of a court to refuse to enforce a law or a government regulation that in the
opinion of the judges conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or, in a state court, the state constitution.
33. Writ of mandamus – Court order directing an official to perform an official duty.
34. Impeachment – Formal accusation by the lower house of legislature against a public official, the first step in
removal from office.
35. Executive order – Directive issued by a president or governor that has the force of law.
36. Executive privilege – The power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to
national security.
37. Impoundment – Presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorized and
appropriated.
American Federalism:
1. Devolution revolution – The effort to slow the growth of the federal government by returning many functions
to the states.
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2. Federalism – Constitutional arrangement in which power is distributed between a central government and
subdivisional governments, called states in the United States. The national and the subdivisional governments
both exercise direct authority over individuals.
3. Dual federalism (layer cake federalism) – Views the Constitution as giving a limited list of powers—primarily
foreign policy and national defense—to the national government, leaving the rest to the sovereign states. Each
level of government is dominant within its own sphere. The Supreme Court serves as the umpire between the
national government and the states in disputes over which level of government has responsibility for a
particular activity.
4. Cooperative federalism – Stresses federalism as a system of intergovernmental relations in delivering
governmental goods and services to the people and calls for cooperation among various levels of government.
5. Marble cake federalism – Conceives of federalism as a marble cake in which all levels of government are
involved in a variety of issues and programs, rather than a layer cake, or dual federalism, with fixed divisions
between layers or levels of government.
6. Competitive federalism – Views the national government, 50 states, and thousands of local governments as
competing with each other over ways to put together packages of services and taxes. Applies the analogy of
the marketplace: we have some choice about which state and city we want to “use”, just as we have choices
about what kind of telephone service we use.
7. Permissive federalism – Implies that although federalism provides “a sharing of power and authority between
the national and state governments, the state’s share rests upon the permission and permissiveness of the
national government.”
8. “Our federalism” – Championed by Ronald Reagan, presumes that the power of the federal government is
limited in favor of the broad powers reserved to the states.
9. Unitary system – Constitutional arrangement that concentrates power in a central government.
10. Confederation – Constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a
central government but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals.
11. Express powers – Powers the Constitution specifically grants to one of the branches of the national
government.
12. Implied powers – Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.
13. Necessary and proper clause – Clause of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the
implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers has the right to make all
laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government.
14. Inherent powers – The powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has
declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national
government.
15. Commerce clause – The clause in the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the
power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.
16. Federal mandate – A requirement the federal government imposes as a condition for receiving federal funds.
17. Concurrent powers – Powers that the Constitution gives to both the national and state governments, such as
the power to levy taxes.
18. Full faith and credit clause – Clause in the Constitution (Article 4, Section 1) requiring each state to
recognize the civil judgments rendered by the courts of the other states and to accept their public records and
acts as valid.
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19. Extradition – Legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one states
to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed.
20. Interstate compact – An agreement among two or more states. Congress must approve most such
agreements.
21. National supremacy – Constitutional doctrine that whenever conflict occurs between the constitutionally
authorized actions of the national government and those of a state or local government, the actions of the
federal government will prevail.
22. Preemption – The right of a federal law or a regulation to preclude enforcement of a state or local law or
regulation.
23. Centralists – People who favor national action over action at the state and local levels.
24. Decentralists – People who favor state or local action rather than national action.
25. State’s rights – Powers expressly or implicitly reserved to the states.
26. Categorical-formula grants – Congress appropriates funds for a specific purpose, such as school lunches or
for building airports and highways. These funds are allocated by formula and are subject to detailed federal
conditions, often on a matching basis; that is, the local government receiving the federal funds must put up
some of its own dollars. Categorical grants, in addition, provide federal supervision to ensure that the federal
dollars are spent as Congress wants.
27. Project grants – Congress appropriates a certain sum, which is allocated to state and local units and
sometimes to nongovernmental agencies, based on applications from those who wish to participate. Examples
are grants by the National Science Foundation to universities and research institutes to support the work of
scientists or grants to states and localities to support training and employment programs.
28. Block grants – These are broad state grants to states for prescribed activities—welfare, child care, education,
social services, preventive health care, and health services—with only a few strings attached. States have
greater flexibility in deciding how to spend block grant dollars, but when the federal funds for any fiscal year
are gone, there are no more matching federal dollars.
29. Direct orders – A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. Direct orders must be complied with
under threat of criminal or civil sanction. An example is the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972,
barring job discrimination by state and local governments on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national
origin.
30. Cross-cutting requirements – A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. Federal grants may
establish certain conditions that extend to all activities supported by federal funds, regardless of their source.
The first and most famous of these is Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which holds that in the use of federal
funds, no person may be discriminated against on the basis of race, color, or national origin. More than 60
cross-cutting requirements concern such matters as the environment, historic preservation, contract wage
rates, access to government information, the care of experimental animals, and the treatment of human
subjects in research projects.
31. Crossover sanctions – A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. These sanctions permit the
use of federal money in one program to influence state and local policy in another. For example, a 1984 act
reduced federal highway aid by up to 15 percent for any state that failed to adopt a minimum drinking age of
21.
32. Total and Partial Preemption - A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. Total preemption
rests on the national governments power under the supremacy and commerce clauses to preempt conflicting
state and local activity. Building on this constitutional authority, federal law in certain areas entirely preempts
state and local governments from the field. Sometimes federal law provides for partial preemption in
establishing basic policies but requires states to administer them. Some programs give states an option not to
participate, but if a state chooses not to do so, the national government steps in and runs the program. Even
worse from the state’s point of view is mandatory partial preemption, in which the national government
requires states to act on peril of losing other funds but provides no funds to support state action.
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33. Creative federalism – During the Great Society, the marble cake approach of intergovernmental relations.
34. Fiscal federalism – Through different grant programs, slices up the marble cake into many different pieces,
making it even more difficult to differentiate the functions of the levels of government.
35. “Necessary and proper” clause – Clause in the Constitution that states that “Congress should have the
power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers. . . .” This
clause is also known as the elastic clause as is a major and significant power of Congress, granting Congress
the ability to interpret its lawmaking ability in a broad manner.
36. Linkage institutions – The means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development
of public policy.
37. Photo ops – Photo opportunities set up by the candidates. The media have been accused of simplifying
complicated political issues by relying on photo ops to explain them to the public.
38. Sound bites – 30-second statements on the evening news shows. The media have been accused of
simplifying complicated political issues by relying on sound bites to explain them to the public.
Political Culture & Ideology:
39. Political culture – The widely shared beliefs, values, and norms about how citizens relate to governments
and to one another.
40. Social capital – Democratic and civic habits of discussion, compromise, and respect for differences, which
grow out of participation in voluntary organizations.
41. Natural rights – The rights of all people to dignity and worth; also called human rights.
42. Democratic consensus – Widespread agreement on fundamental principles of democratic governance and
the values that undergird them.
43. Majority rule – Governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority.
44. Popular sovereignty – A belief that ultimate power resides in the people.
45. American dream – The widespread belief that the United States is a land of opportunity and that individual
initiative and hard work can bring economic success.
46. Capitalism – An economic system characterized by private property, competitive markets, economic
incentives, and limited government involvement in the production, distribution, and pricing of goods and
services.
47. Suffrage – The right to vote.
48. Monopoly – Domination of an industry by a single company that fixes prices and discourages competition;
also, the company that dominates the industry by these means.
49. Antitrust legislation – Federal laws (starting with the Sherman Act of 1890) that tried to prevent a monopoly
from dominating an industry and restraining trade.
50. Political ideology – A consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of government.
51. Liberalism – A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity.
52. Conservatism – A belief that limited government insures order competitive markets and personal opportunity.
53. Socialism - An economic and governmental system based on public ownership of the means of production
and exchange.
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54. Libertarianism – An ideology that cherishes individual liberty and insists on minimal government, promoting a
free market economy, a noninterventionist foreign policy, and an absence of regulation in moral, economic,
and social life.
The American Political Landscape:
55. Ethnocentrism – Belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group.
56. Political socialization – The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
57. Demographics – The study of the characteristics of populations.
58. Political predisposition – A characteristic of individuals that is predictive of political behavior.
59. Reinforcing cleavages – Divisions within society that reinforce one another, making groups more
homogenous or similar.
60. Cross-cutting cleavages – Divisions within society that cut across demographic categories to produce
groups that are more heterogeneous or different.
61. Manifest destiny – A notion held by a nineteenth-century Americans that the United States was destined to
rule the continent, from the Atlantic the Pacific.
62. Race - A grouping of human beings with distinctive characteristics determined by genetic inheritance.
63. Ethnicity – A social division based on national origin, religion, language, and often race.
64. Gender gap – The difference between the political opinions or political behavior of men and of women.
65. Fundamentalists – Conservative Christians who (as a group) have become more active in politics in the last
two decades and were especially influential in the 2000 presidential election.
66. Gross domestic product (GDP) – The total output of all economic activity in the nation, including goods and
services.
67. Socioeconomic status (SES) – A division of population based on occupation, income, and education.
Interest Groups:
68. Faction – A term the founders used to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups.
69. Pluralism – A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the
asserted power by any one group.
70. Interest group – A collection of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence
government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of government and try to
achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying.
71. Movement – A large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing
significance and who are willing to take action. Movements seek to change attitudes or institutions, not just
policies.
72. Open shop – A company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a
condition of employment.
73. Closed shop – A company with a labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of
employment.
74. Free rider – An individual who does not to join a group representing his or her interests yet receives the
benefit of the group’s influence.
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75. Nongovernmental organization (NGO) – A nonprofit association or group operating outside of government
that advocates and pursues policy objectives.
76. Collective action – How groups form and organize to pursue their goals or objectives, including how to get
individuals and groups to participate and to cooperate. The term has many applications in the various social
sciences such as political science, sociology, and economics.
77. Public choice – Synonymous with “collective action,” it specifically studies how government officials,
politicians, and voters respond to positive and negative incentives.
78. Federal Register – An official document, published every weekday, which lists the new and proposed
regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies.
79. amicus curiae brief – Literally, a “friend of the court” brief, filed by an individual or organization to present
arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.
80. Lobbyist – A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to
influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.
81. Lobbying – Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies
they enact.
82. Revolving door – Employment cycle in which individuals who work for governmental agencies that regulate
interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern.
83. Issue network – Relationships among interest groups, congressional committees and subcommittees, and
the government agencies that share a common policy concern.
84. Political action committee (PAC) – The political arm of an interest group that is legally entitled to raise funds
on a voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees to contribute funds to candidates or political
parties.
85. Leadership PAC – A PAC formed by an officeholder that collects contributions from individuals and other
PACs and then makes contributions to other candidates and political parties.
86. Bundling – A tactic in which PACs collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited to $2000)
and present them to a candidate or political party as a “bundle,” thus increasing the PAC’s influence.
87. Soft money – Unlimited amounts of money that political parties previously could raise for party-building
purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state and local parties for voter registration and
get-out-the-vote efforts.
88. Quid pro quo – Something given with the expectation of receiving something in return.
89. Independent expenditures – The Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend
unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the
candidates. When an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an independent expenditure.
90. Issue advocacy – Unlimited and undisclosed spending by an individual or group on communications that do
not use words like “vote for” or “vote against,” although much of this activity is actually about electing or
defeating candidates.
91. 527 organization – A political group organized under section 527 of the IRS code that may accept and spend
unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads run in the
last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election in which clearly identified candidate is
referred to and a relevant electorate is targeted.
Political Parties:
92. Political party – An organization that seeks political power by electing people to office so that its positions and
philosophy become public policy.
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93. Nonpartisan election – A local or judicial election in which candidates are not selected or endorsed by
political parties and party affiliation is not listed on ballots.
94. Patronage – The dispensing of government jobs to persons who belong to the winning political party.
95. Soft money – Money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. Now largely
illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts.
96. Hard money – Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amounts
and fully disclosed. Raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term “hard
money.”
97. Independent expenditure – The Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend
unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the
candidates. When an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an independent expenditure.
98. Honeymoon – Period at the beginning of the new president’s term during which the president enjoys generally
positive relations with the press and Congress, usually lasting about six months.
99. Caucus – A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to
decide the platform.
100. Party convention – A meeting of party delegates to vote on matters of policy and in some cases to select
party candidates for public office.
101. Direct primary – Election in which voters choose party nominees.
102. Open primary – Primary election in which any voter, regardless of party, may vote.
103. Crossover voting – Voting by member of one party for a candidate of another party.
104. Closed primary – Primary election in which only persons registered in the party holding the primary may
vote.
105. Proportional representation – An election system in which each party running receives the proportion of
legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote.
106. Winner-take-all system – Election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins.
107. Minor party – A small political party that rises and falls with a charismatic candidate or, if composed of
ideologies on the right or left, usually persists over time; also called a third party.
108. Libertarian party – A minor party that believes in extremely limited government. Libertarians call for a free
market system, expanded individual liberties such as drug legalization, and a foreign policy of
nonintervention, free trade, and open immigration.
109. Green party – A minor party dedicated to the environment, social justice, nonviolence, and the foreign policy
of nonintervention. Ralph Nader ran as the Green party’s nominee in 2000.
110. Reform party – A minor party founded by Ross Perot in 1995. It focuses on national government reform,
fiscal responsibility, and political accountability. It has recently struggled with internal strife and criticism that it
lacks an identity.
111. Realigning election – An election during periods of expanded suffrage and change in the economy and
society that proves to be a turning point, redefining the agenda of politics and the alignment of voters within
parties.
112. Laissez-faire economics – Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond
what is necessary to protect life and property.
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113. Keynesian economics – Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government
spending should increase during business slumps and the curve during booms.
114. National party convention – A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state
conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president,
ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.
115. Party registration – The act of declaring party affiliation; required by some states when one registers to
vote.
116. Party identification – An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people acquire in
childhood.
117. Dealignment – Weakening of partisan preferences that points to a rejection of both major parties and a rise
in the number of independents.
Public Opinion, Participation & Voting:
118.
Public opinion – The distribution of individual preferences or evaluations of a given issue, candidate, or
institution within a specific population.
119.
Random sample – In this type of sample, every individual has unknown and random chance of being
selected.
120.
Manifest opinion – A widely shared and consciously held view, like support for homeland security.
121.
Political socialization - The process – most notably in families and schools – by which we develop our
political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
122.
Attentive public – Those citizens who follow public affairs carefully.
123.
Voter registration – System designed to reduce voter fraud by limiting voting to those who have
established eligibility to vote by submitting the proper documents.
124.
Australian ballot – A secret ballot printed by the state.
125.
General election – Elections in which voters elect officeholders.
126.
Primary election – Elections in which voters determine party nominees.
127.
Presidential election – Elections held in years when the president is on the ballot.
128.
Midterm election – Elections held midway between presidential elections.
129.
Turnout – The proportion of the voting age public that votes, sometimes defined as the number of
registered voters that vote.
130.
Party identification – An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people acquire in
childhood.
131.
Candidate appeal – How voters feel about a candidate’s background, personality, leadership ability, and
other personal qualities.
132.
Prospective issue voting – Voting based on what a candidate pledges to do in the future about an issue if
elected.
133.
Retrospective issue of voting – Holding incumbents, usually the president’s party, responsible for their
records on issues, such as the economy or foreign policy.
Campaigns & Elections:
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Winner-take-all system – An election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins.
Single-member district – An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.
Proportional representation – Election system in which each party running receives the proportion of
legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote.
Electoral college – Electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters
vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for particular party’s candidates.
Safe seat – Elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of the party’s
candidate is almost taken for granted.
Coattail effect – The boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of
candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president.
Candidate appeal – The tendency in elections to focus on the personal attributes of a candidate, such as
his/her strengths, weaknesses, background, experience, and visibility.
National tide – The inclination to focus on national issues, rather than local issues, in an election
campaign. The impact of the national tide can be reduced by the nature of the candidates on the ballot
who might have differentiated themselves from their party or its leader if the tide is negative, as well as
competition in the election.
Name recognition – Incumbents have an advantage over challengers in election campaigns because
voters are more familiar with them, and incumbents are more recognizable.
Caucus – A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to
decide the platform.
National party convention – A national meeting of delegates elected at primaries, caucuses, or state
conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice
president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.
Interested money – Financial contributions by individuals or groups in the hope of influencing the
outcome of the election and subsequently influencing policy.
Federal Election Commission (FEC) - A commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal
Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws. It consists of six commissioners appointed by
president and confirmed by the Senate. Its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance
information and public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits.
Soft money – Contributions to a state or local party for party-building purposes.
Hard money – Donations made to political candidates, party committees, or groups which, by law, are
limited and must be declared.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) – Largely banned party soft money, restored a long-standing
prohibition on corporations and labor unions for using general treasury funds for electoral purposes, and
narrowed the definition of issue advocacy.
Issue advocacy – Promoting a particular position or an issue paid for by interest groups or individuals
but not candidates. Much issue advocacy is often electioneering for or against a candidate, and until 2004
had not been subject to any regulation.
527 organizations – Interest groups organized under section 527 of the Internal Revenue Code may
advertise for or against candidates. If their source of funding is corporations or unions, they have some
restrictions on broadcast advertising. 527 organizations were important in recent elections.
Independent expenditures – Money spent by individuals or groups not associated with candidates to
elect or defeat candidates for office.
Mass Media & Politics:
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156.
Mass media – Means of communication that are reaching the public, including newspapers and
magazines, radio, television (broadcast, cable, and satellite), films, recordings, books, and electronic
communication.
News media – Media that emphasize the news.
Issue advocacy – Promoting a particular position or an issue by interest groups or individuals but not
candidates. Much issue advocacy is often electioneering for or against a candidate and, until 2004 had not
been subject to regulation.
Political socialization – The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
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Selective exposure – The process by which individuals screen out messages that do not conform to their
own biases.
Selected perception – The process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media messages.
Horse race – A close contest; by extension, any contest in which the focus is on who is ahead and by how
much rather than on substantive differences between the candidates.
Congress:
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Constituents – The residents of a congressional district or state.
Reapportionment – The assigning by Congress of congressional seats after each census. State
legislatures reapportion state legislative districts.
Redistricting – The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to
accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.
Gerrymandering – The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent.
Safe seat – An elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of that
party’s candidate is almost taken for granted.
Incumbent – The current holder of the elected office.
Bicameralism – The principle of a two-house legislature.
Enumerated powers – The powers expressly given to Congress in the Constitution.
Speaker – The presiding officer in the House of Representatives, formally elected by the House but
actually selected by the majority party.
Party caucus – A meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to
develop party policy. Called a conference by the Republicans.
Majority leader – The legislative leader selected by the majority party who helps plan party strategy,
confers with other party leaders, and tries to keep members of the party in line.
Minority leader – the legislative leader selected by the minority party as spokesperson for the opposition.
Whip – Party leader who is the liaison between the leadership and the rank-and-file in the legislature.
Closed rule – A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or
provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments.
Open rule – A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that permits floor amendments within the
overall time allocated to the bill.
President pro tempore – Officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence
of the vice president.
Hold – A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator temporarily blocks the consideration of the
bill or nomination.
Filibuster – A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and
thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.
Cloture – A procedure for terminating debate, especially filibusters, in the Senate.
Senatorial courtesy – Presidential custom of submitting the names of perspective appointees for approval
to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.
Standing committee – A permanent committee established in a legislature, usually focusing on a policy
area.
Special or select committee – A congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to
conduct an investigation.
Joint committee – A committee composed of members of both the House of Representatives and the
Senate; such committees oversee the Library of Congress and conduct investigations.
Earmarks – Special spending projects that are set aside on behalf of individual members of Congress for
their constituents.
Seniority rule – A legislative practice that assigns the chair of the committee or subcommittee to the
member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee.
Conference committee – Committee appointed by the presiding officers of each chamber to adjust
differences on a particular bill passed by each in different form.
Delegate – An official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when
personally holding different views; one interpretation of the role of legislator.
Trustee – An official who is expected to vote independently based on his or her judgment of the
circumstances; one interpretation of the role of the legislator.
Logrolling – Mutual aid and vote trading among legislators.
Attentive public – Those citizens who follow public affairs closely.
Discharge petition – Petition that, if signed by majority of the House of Representatives’ members, will pry
a bill from committee and bring it to the floor for consideration.
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192.
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Rider – A provision attached to a bill – to which it may or may not be related – in order to secure its
passage or defeat.
Pocket veto – A veto exercised by the president after Congress has adjourned; if the president takes no
action for 10 days, the bill does not become law and does not return to Congress for possible override.
Override – An action taken by Congress to reverse the presidential veto, requiring a two-thirds majority in
each chamber.
The Presidency:
194. Parliamentary system – A system of government in which the legislature selects the prime minister or
president.
195. Presidential ticket – The joint listing of the presidential and vice presidential candidates on the same ballot
as required by the Twelfth Amendment.
196. Treaty – A formal, public agreement between the United States and one or more nations that must be
approved by two thirds of the Senate.
197. Executive agreement – A formal agreement between the U.S. president and the leaders of other nations
that does not require Senate approval.
198. Congressional-executive agreement – A formal agreement between a U.S. president and the leaders of
other nations that acquires approval by both houses of Congress.
199. Veto – A formal decision to reject the bill passed by Congress.
200. Pocket veto – A formal decision to reject a bill passed by Congress after it adjourns – if Congress adjourns
during the ten days that the president is allowed in order to sign or veto law, the president can reject the law
by taking no action at all.
201. Take care clause – The constitutional requirement (in Article II, Section 3) that presidents take care that the
laws are faithfully executed, even if they disagree with the purpose of those laws.
202. Inherent powers – Powers that grow out of the very existence of government.
203. State of the Union Address – The president’s annual statement to Congress and the nation.
204. Impeachment – Formal accusation against a president or other public official, the first step in removal from
office.
205. Executive privilege – The right to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to
National Security.
206. Executive orders – Formal orders issued by the president to direct action by the Federal bureaucracy.
207. Impoundment - A decision by the president not to spend money appropriated by Congress, now prohibited
under Federal law.
208. Line item veto – Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a spending bill without vetoing
the entire package; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
209. Chief of staff – The head of the White House staff.
210. Executive Office of the President – The cluster of presidential staff agencies that help the president carry
out his responsibilities. Currently the office includes the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of
Economic Advisers, and several other units.
211. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) – Presidential staff the agency that serves as a clearinghouse
for budgetary requests and management improvements for government agencies.
212. Cabinet – Advisory council for the president consisting of the heads of the executive departments, the vice
president, and a few other officials selected by the president.
213. Rally point – A rising public approval of the president that follows a crisis as Americans “rally ’round the
flag” and the chief executive.
214. Mandate – A president’s claim of broad public support.
215. Cycle of decreasing influence – The tendency of presidents to lose support over time.
216. Cycle of increasing effectiveness – The tendency of presidents to learn more about doing their jobs over
time
The Federal Administrative System (Bureaucracy):
217. Bureaucracy – A form of organization that operates through impersonal, uniform rules and procedures.
218. Bureaucrat – A career government employee.
219. Department – Usually the largest organization in government with the largest mission; also the highest rank
in Federal hierarchy.
220. Independent agency – A government entity that is independent of the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches.
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221. Independent regulatory commission – A government agency or commission with regulatory power whose
independence is protected by Congress.
222. Government corporation – A government agency that operates like a business corporation, created to
secure greater freedom of action and flexibility for a particular program.
223. Senior Executive Service – Established by Congress in 1978 as a flexible, mobile corps of senior career
executives who worked closely with presidential appointees to manage government.
224. Spoils system – A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.
225. Merit system – A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated
performance rather than political patronage.
226. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) – Agency that administers civil service laws, rules, and
regulations.
227. Hatch Act – Federal statute barring Federal employees from active participation in certain kinds of politics
and protecting them from being fired on partisan grounds.
228. Implementation – The process of putting a law into practice through bureaucratic rules or spending.
229. Administrative discretion – Authority given by Congress to the Federal bureaucracy to use reasonable
judgment in implementing the laws.
230. Regulations – The formal instructions that government issues for implementing laws.
231. Rule-making process – The formal process for making regulations.
232. Uncontrollable spending – The portion of the Federal budget that is spent on programs, such as Social
Security, that the president and Congress are unwilling to cut.
233. Entitlement programs – Programs such as unemployment insurance, disability relief, or disability payments
that provide benefits to all eligible citizens.
234. Indexing – Providing automatic increases to compensate for inflation.
235. Oversight – Legislative or executive review of a particular government program or organization. Can be in
response to a crisis of some kind or part of routine review.
236. Central clearance – Review of all executive branch testimony, reports, and draft legislation by the Office of
Management and Budget to ensure that each communication to Congress is in accordance with the
president’s program.
The Judiciary:
237. Judicial review – The power of a court to refuse to enforce a law or government regulation that in the
opinion of the judges conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or, in a state court, the state constitution.
238. Adversary system – A judicial system in which the court of law is a neutral arena where two parties argue
their differences.
239. Criminal law – A law that defines crimes against the public order.
240. Civil law – A law that governs relationships between individuals and defines their legal rights.
241. Justiciable dispute – A dispute growing out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable of
settlement by legal methods.
242. Defendant – In a criminal action, the person or party accused of an offense.
243. Plea bargain – Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a
lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.
244. Public defender system – Arrangement whereby public officials are hired to provide legal assistance to
people accused of crimes who are unable to hire their own attorneys.
245. Original jurisdiction – The authority of a court to hear a case “in the first instance.”
246. Appellate jurisdiction – The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.
247. Court of appeals – A court with appellate jurisdiction that hears appeals from the decisions of lower courts.
248. Precedent – A decision made by a higher court such as a circuit court of appeals or the Supreme Court that
is binding on all other federal courts.
249. Writ of habeas corpus – A court order requiring explanation to a judge why a prisoner is being held in
custody.
250. Senatorial courtesy – Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval
to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.
251. Judicial restraint – Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect what the
framers intended and what its words literally say.
252. Judicial activism – Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect current
conditions and values.
253. Stare decisis – The rule of precedent, whereby a rule or law contained in a judicial decision is commonly
viewed as binding on judges whenever the same question is presented.
254. Writ of certiorari – A formal writ used to bring a case before the Supreme Court.
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255. Docket – The list of potential cases that reach the Supreme Court.
256. Amicus curiae brief – Literally, a “friend of the court” brief, filed by an individual or organization to present
arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.
257. Opinion of the Court – An explanation of the decision of the Supreme Court or any other appellate court.
258. Dissenting opinion – An opinion disagreeing with a majority in a Supreme Court ruling.
259. Concurring opinion – An opinion that agrees with the majority in a Supreme Court ruling but differs on the
reasoning.
First Amendment Freedoms:
260. Writ of habeas corpus – A court order requiring explanation to a judge why a prisoner is being held in
custody.
261. Ex post facto law – Retroactive criminal law that works to the disadvantage of a person.
262. Bill of attainder – Legislative act inflicting punishment, including deprivation of property, without a trial, on
named individuals or members of a specific group.
263. Due process clause – Clause in the Fifth Amendment limiting the power of the national government; similar
clause in the Fourteenth Amendment prohibiting state governments from depriving any person of life, liberty,
or property without due process of law.
264. Selective incorporation – The process by which provisions of the bill of rights are brought within the scope
of the Fourteenth Amendment and so applied to state and local governments.
265. Establishment clause – Clause in the First Amendment that states that Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion. The Supreme Court has interpreted this to forbid governmental
support to any or all religions.
266. Vouchers – Money government provides to parents to pay their children’s tuition in a public or private
school of their choice.
267. Free exercise clause – Clause in the First Amendment that states that Congress shall make no law
prohibiting the free exercise of religion.
268. Bad tendency test - Interpretation of the First Amendment that would permit legislatures to forbid speech
encouraging people to engage in illegal action.
269. Clear and present danger test – Interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that the government
cannot interfere with speech unless the speech presents a clear and present danger that it will lead to evil or
illegal acts.
270. Preferred position doctrine – Interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that freedom of expression
is so essential to democracy that governments should not punish persons for what they say, only for what
they do.
271. Nonprotected speech – Libel, obscenity, fighting words, and commercial speech, which are not entitled to
constitutional protection in all circumstances.
272. Libel – Written defamation of another person. For public officials and public figures, the constitutional tests
designed to restrict libel actions are especially rigid.
273. Sedition - Attempting to overthrow the government by force or use violence to interrupt its activities.
274. Obscenity – Quality or state of a work that taken as a whole appeals to a prurient interest in sex by
depicting sexual conduct in a patently offensive way and that lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or
scientific value.
275. Fighting words – Words that by their very nature inflict injury on those to whom they are addressed or
insight them to acts of violence.
276. Commercial speech – Advertisements and commercials for products and services; they receive less First
Amendment protection, primarily to discourage false and misleading ads.
277. Prior restraint – Censorship imposed before a speech is made or a newspaper is published; usually
presumed to be unconstitutional.
278. Civil disobedience – Deliberate refusal to obey law or comply with orders of public officials as a means of
expressing opposition.
Right to life, liberty & property (due process):
279.
280.
281.
282.
Naturalization – A legal action conferring citizenship on an alien.
Dual citizenship – Citizenship in more than one nation.
Right of expatriation – The right to renounce one’s citizenship.
Property rights – The rights of an individual to own, use, rent, invest in, buy, and sell property.
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283. Contract clause – Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 10) originally intended to prohibit state
governments from modifying contracts made between individuals; for a while interpreted as prohibiting state
governments from taking actions that adversely affect property rights; no longer interpreted so broadly and
no longer constrains state governments from exercising their police powers.
284. Police powers – Inherent powers of state governments to pass laws to protect the public health, safety, and
welfare; the national government has no directly granted police powers but accomplishes the same goals
through other delegated powers.
285. Eminent domain – Power of a government to take private property for public use; the U.S. Constitution
gives national and state governments this power and requires them to provide just compensation for
property so taken.
286. Regulatory taking – Government regulation of property so extensive that government is deemed to have
taken the property by the power of eminent domain, for which it must compensate the property owners.
287. Due process – Established rules and regulations that restrain government officials.
288. Procedural due process – Constitutional requirement that governments proceed by proper methods; limits
how government may exercise power.
289. Substantive due process - Constitutional requirement that governments act reasonably and that the
substance of the laws themselves be fair and reasonable; limits what the government may do.
290. Search warrant – A writ issued by a magistrate that authorizes the police to search a particular place or
person, specifying the place to be searched and the objects to be seized.
291. Racial profiling – Police targeting of racial minorities as potential suspects of criminal activities.
292. Exclusionary rule – Requirement that evidence unconstitutionally or illegally obtained be excluded from a
criminal trial.
293. Immunity – Exemption from prosecution for a particular crime in return for testimony pertaining to the case.
294. Grand jury – A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to
determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence
that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.
295. Indictment – A formal written statement from a grand jury charging an individual with an offense; also called
a true bill.
296. Plea bargain – Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a
lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for more serious offense.
297. Petit jury – A jury of 6 to 12 persons that determines guilt or innocence in a civil or criminal action.
298. Double jeopardy – Trial or punishment for the same crime by the same government; forbidden by the
Constitution.
299. Community policing – Assigning police to neighborhoods where they walk the beat and work with churches
and other community groups to reduce crime and improve relations with minorities.
Equal Rights:
300.
301.
302.
303.
304.
305.
306.
307.
308.
309.
Natural rights - The rights of all people to dignity and worth; also called human rights.
Affirmative action – Remedial action designed to overcome the effects of discrimination against minorities
and women.
Women’s suffrage – The right of women to vote.
Equal protection clause - Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that forbids any state to deny to any
person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. By interpretation, the Fifth Amendment
imposes the same limitation on the national government. This clause is the major constitutional restraint on
the power of governments to discriminate against persons because of race, national origin, or sex.
Due process clause – Clause in the Fifth Amendment limiting the power of the national government;
similar clause in the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the state governments from depriving any person of
life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
White primary – Democratic party primary in the old “one-party South” that was limited to white people and
essentially constituted an election; ruled unconstitutional in Smith v. Allwright (1944).
Racial gerrymandering – The drawing of election districts so as to ensure that members of a certain race
are a minority in the district; ruled unconstitutional in Gomillion v. Lightfoot (1960).
Poll tax – Tax required to vote; prohibited for national elections by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964)
and ruled unconstitutional for all elections in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966).
Literacy test – Literacy requirements some states imposed as a condition of voting, generally used to
disqualify black voters in the South; now illegal.
Majority-minority district – A congressional district created to include a majority of minority voters; ruled
constitutional so long as race is not the main factor in redistricting.
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311.
312.
313.
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Jim Crow laws – State laws formerly pervasive throughout the South requiring public facilities and
accommodations to be segregated by race; ruled unconstitutional.
De jure segregation – Segregation imposed by law.
De facto segregation – Segregation resulting from economic or social conditions or personal choice.
Commerce clause – The clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) that gives Congress the
power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.
Class action suit – Lawsuit brought by an individual or group of people on behalf of all those similarly
situated.
Restrictive covenant – A provision in a deed to real property prohibiting its sale to a person of a particular
race or religion. Judicial enforcement of such deeds is unconstitutional.
Economic & Regulatory Policy:
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332.
333.
334.
335.
336.
337.
338.
339.
340.
Public policy – A specific course of action taken by government to achieve a public goal.
Policy agenda – The informal list of issues that Congress and the president consider most important for
action.
Distributive policy – A type of policy that provides benefits to all Americans.
Redistributive policy – A type of policy that takes benefits (usually through taxes) from one group of
Americans and gives them to another (usually through spending).
Rule – The precise legal definition of how government will implement a policy.
Iron triangle – A policy-making alliance that involves a very strong ties among a congressional committee,
an interest group, and a Federal Department or agency.
Issue network – A policy-making alliance among loosely connected participants that comes together on a
particular issue, then disbands.
Fiscal policy – Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling taxing and
spending.
Monetary policy – Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling the money
supply and thus interest rates.
Inflation – A rise in the general price level (and decrease in dollar value) owing to an increase in the
volume of money and credit in relation to available goods.
Unemployment – The number of Americans who are out of work but actively looking for a job. The number
does not usually include those who are not looking.
Excise tax – Consumer tax on a specific kind of merchandise, such as tobacco.
Deficit – The difference between the revenues raised annually from sources of income other than
borrowing and the expenditures of government, including paying the interest on past borrowing.
Tariff – Tax levied on imports to help protect the nation’s industries, labor, or farmers from foreign
competition. It can also be used to raise additional revenue.
Progressive tax – A tax graduated so that people with higher incomes pay larger fraction of their income
than people with lower incomes.
Regressive tax – A tax whereby people with lower incomes pay a higher fraction of their income than
people with higher incomes.
National debt – The total amount of money the Federal government has borrowed to finance deficit
spending over the years.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) – Presidential staff agency that serves as a clearinghouse for
budgetary requests and management improvements for government agencies.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) – An agency of Congress that analyzes presidential budget
recommendations and estimates the cost of proposed legislation.
Sales tax – General tax on sales transactions, sometimes exempting food and drugs.
Value-added tax (VAT) – A tax on increased value of the product at each stage of production and
distribution rather than just at the point of sale.
Tax expenditure – Loss of tax revenue due to Federal laws that provide special tax incentives or benefits
to individuals or businesses.
Monetarism – A theory that government should control the money supply to encourage economic growth
and restrain inflation.
Federal Reserve System – The system created by Congress in 1913 to establish banking practices and
regulate currency in circulation and the amount of credit available. It consists of 12 regional banks
supervised by the Board of Governors. Often called simply the Fed.
Laissez-faire economics – Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond
what is necessary to protect life and property.
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342.
343.
344.
345.
346.
347.
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Keynesian economics - Economic theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes stating that
government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.
Trade deficit – An imbalance in international trade in which the value of imports exceeds the value of
exports.
World Trade Organization (WTO) – International organization derived from the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that promotes it free trade around the world.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – An international trade organization with more than
130 members, including the United States and the People’s Republic of China, that seeks to encourage
free trade by lowering tariffs and other trade restrictions.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) – Agreement signed by the United States, Canada, and
Mexico in 1992 to form the largest free trade zone in the world.
Protectionism - Policy of erecting trade barriers to protect domestic industry.
Offshoring – The practice of exporting U.S. jobs to lower paid employees in other nations.
Regulation – Efforts by government to alter the free operation of the market to achieve social goals such
as protecting workers and the environment.
Monopoly - Domination of an industry by a single company; also the company that dominates the industry.
Antitrust legislation – Federal laws (starting with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890) that try to prevent a
monopoly from dominating an industry and restraining trade.
Trust – A monopoly that controls goods and services, often in combinations that reduce competition.
Closed shop - A company with a labor agreement under which union membership is a condition of
employment.
Union shop – A company in which new employees must join a union within a stated time period.
Labor injunction – A court order forbidding specific individuals or groups from performing certain acts
(such as striking) that the court considers harmful to the rights and property of an employer or community.
Collective bargaining – Method whereby representatives of the union and employer determine wages,
hours, and other conditions of employment through direct negotiation.
Environmental impact statement – Statement required by Federal law from all agencies for any project
using Federal funds to assess the potential affect of the new construction or development on the
environment.
Deregulation – A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific areas of
economic activity.
Social Policy:
358. Unfunded mandates – Programs that the Federal government requires States to implement without Federal
funding.
359. Entitlements – Programs such as unemployment insurance, disaster relief, or disability payments that
provide benefits to all eligible citizens.
360. Means-tested entitlements – Programs such as Medicaid and welfare under which applicants must meet
eligibility requirements based on need.
361. Public assistance - Aid to the poor; “welfare.”
362. Social insurance – Programs in which eligibility is based on prior contributions to government, usually in the
form of payroll taxes.
363. Social Security – A combination of entitlement programs, paid for by employer and employee taxes, that
includes retirement benefits, health insurance, and support for disabled workers and the children of
deceased or disabled workers.
364. Medicare – National Health Insurance program for the elderly and disabled.
365. Medicaid – Federal program that provides medical benefits for low-income persons.
366. Health maintenance organization (HMO) – Alternative means of health care in which people or their
employers are charged a set amount and the HMO provides health care and covers hospital costs.
367. Medical savings account – Alternative means of health care in which individuals make tax-deductible
contributions to a special account that can be used to pay medical expenses.
368. Foreign & Defense Policy:
369. Realism – A theory of international relations that focuses on the tendency of nations to operate from selfinterest.
370. Idealism – A theory of international relations that focuses on the hope the nations will act together to solve
international problems and promote peace.
371. Isolationism – The desire to avoid international entanglement altogether.
372. Internationalism – The belief that nations must engage in international problem solving.
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373. Unilateralism – A philosophy that encourages individual nations to act on their own when facing threats
from other nations.
374. Bush Doctrine – A policy adopted by the Bush administration in 2001 that asserts America’s right to attack
any nation that has weapons of mass destruction that might be used against U.S. interests at home or
abroad.
375. Multilateralism – A philosophy that encourages individual nations tacked together to solve international
problems.
376. Hard power – The reliance on economic and military strength to solve international problems.
377. Soft power – The reliance on diplomacy and negotiation to solve international problems.
378. Theory of deterrence – A theory that is based on creating enough military strength to convince other
nations not to attack first.
379. Weapons of mass destruction – Biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons that can cause a massive
number of deaths in a single use.
380. Normal trade relations – Trade status granted as part of an international trade policy that gives a nation the
same favorable trade concessions and tariffs that the best trading partners receive.
381. National Intelligence Director – The Federal government’s primary intelligence officer, responsible for
overseeing all national intelligence agencies and providing advice to the President on terrorist threats.
382. Bipartisanship – A policy that emphasizes a united front and cooperation between the major political
parties, especially on sensitive foreign policy issues.
383. Economic sanctions – Denial of export, import, or financial relations with the target country in an effort to
change that nation’s policies.
Legislation to know:
Hatch Act, 1939:

Limits political activities of civil service employees.
Civil Rights Act of 1964:
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Enforced the 14th Amendment.
Title II bans discrimination in public places on basis of race, color, national origin, or religion.
Ended Jim Crow segregation in hotels, motels, restaurants, and other places of public accommodation.
Prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, or gender.
Created Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to monitor and enforce protections against job
discrimination.
Upheld by Supreme Court on grounds that segregation affected interstate commerce.
Voting Rights Act of 1965:
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Suspended literacy tests.
Gave federal officials oversight responsibility in voter registration in areas with a history of discriminatory voting
practices.
Empowered federal officials to ensure that citizens who registered could vote.
Empowered federal officials to count ballots.
Prohibited states from changing voting procedures without federal permission.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act, 1967:

Bans age discrimination for jobs unless age is related to job performance.
Air Quality Act, 1967:

Established emission standards for cars and factories.
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Clean Air Act, 1970:
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Increased power of federal government relative to power of state governments in controlling air quality.
Established national air quality standards.
Required states to administer new standards and to appropriate funds for their implementation.
Federal Election Campaign Acts, 1971-1974:
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Created FEC (Federal Election Commission).
Required disclosure of contributions and expenditures.
Provided limitations on contributions and presidential election expenditures.
Provided subsidies for presidential candidates.
Title IX of Education Act of 1972:

Prohibited gender discrimination in federally subsidized education programs.
War Powers Act, 1973:
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
President could send troops overseas to an area where hostilities were imminent only if:
o He notified Congress within 48 hours.
o He withdrew troops within 60-90 days, unless authorized by Congress.
o He consulted with Congress if troops were to engage in combat.
Congress can pass resolution to have troops withdrawn at any time.
Freedom of Information Act, 1974:

Allows public access to nonclassified federal documents.
Budget and Impoundment Control Act, 1974:
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Established congressional budget committees.
Established CBO (Congressional Budget Office) to evaluate president’s budget.
Established and then extended budget process by three months.
Allows either house to override temporary impoundment (deferral).
Automatically voids permanent impoundment (rescission) unless both houses approve within 45 days.
Federal Election Campaign Act, 1974:
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Created the Federal Election Commission (FEC)
Tightened reporting requirements for campaign contributions.
Provided full public financing for major party candidates in the general election.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Bill, 1985:
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Set gradual budget reduction targets to lead to a balanced budget.
Across-the-board budget cuts (sequestering of funds) to kick in if targets not met.
Loopholes: abandonment in late 1980s.
Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990
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Bans job discrimination against disabled if “reasonable accommodation” can be made.
Requires access to facilities for handicapped.
Permits non-paid leave of absence (in some situations) without jeopardizing job participation.
National Voter Registration Bill (“Motor Voter Act”), 1993:
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Requires states to allow people to register to vote when applying for driver’s licenses applications, or completing
license renewal forms.
LBriones
Vocab to know
APGoPo
Religious Freedom Restoration Act, 1993:
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Restored compelling purpose guideline for courts to use when states restrict religious liberty. Struck down by
Supreme Court in Boerne v. Flores.
Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995:
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Requires CBO to analyze impact of unfounded mandates on states.
Requires separate congressional vote on bills that impose unfounded mandates.
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (Welfare Reform Act of 1996):
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Ended federal entitlement status of welfare—ended Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).
Replaced AFDC with block grants to states to administer welfare—Temporary Assistance to Needy Families
(TANF).
Strings attached to these grants include:
o Recipients must work within 2 years.
o Recipients cannot receive benefits for more than 5 years.
Communications Decency Act (CDA), 1997:
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Prohibited circulation of “indecent” material on Internet to minors.
Struck down by Supreme Court.
No Child Left Behind Act, 2001:
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States must adopt education accountability standards and measurable goals.
States must develop assessment tools and annually test students.
Sanctions against schools that fail to meet adequate yearly progress.
Dramatic expansion of federal role in education.
USA Patriot Act, 2001:
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Expands definition of terrorism to include domestic terrorism.
Strengthens the federal government’s power to conduct surveillance, perform searches, and detain individuals in
order to combat terrorism.
McCain-Feingold Bill (Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act), 2002:
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Raised hard money limits to $2,000.
Banned soft money contributions to national political parties.
Affordable Health Care Act (2011):
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Requires all persons not currently covered by insurance to purchase a policy.
Expands Medicaid eligibility.
Creates insurance exchanges—a marketplace where individuals and small businesses can compare policies and
premiums, and buy insurance.
Insurance companies can no longer limit or deny benefits to children under age 19 due to a pre-existing health
condition.
Persons have the right to keep “grandfathered” health plans if they were covered before the health care law was
enacted.
Dependents under 26 may be eligible for health insurance coverage under their parent’s plan.
Tax credits will be provided for small businesses and non-profits.
Requires employers with more than 50 employees to offer health insurance to full-time employees (2014)
LBriones
Vocab to know
APGoPo
Court Cases to know:
Court Case
Summary Issues
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Established judicial review; “midnight judges;” John Marshall wrote decision;
gave more power to Supreme Court.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Established national supremacy; established implied powers; defense and
definition of elastic clause; states unable to tax federal institutions; John
Marshall wrote decision; “power to tax involves the power to destroy.”
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Established “separate but equal.”
Schenck v. U.S. (1919)
Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote decision; established “clear and present
danger” test; shouting “fire” in a crowded theater; limits on speech, especially
in wartime.
Gitlow v. New York (1925)
Established precedent of federalizing Bill of Rights (applying them to states);
states cannot deny freedom of speech – protected through due process
clause of 14th Amendment.
Palko v. Connecticut (1937)
Provided test for determining which parts of Bill of Rights should be
federalized – those which are implicitly or explicitly necessary to liberty to
exist.
Brown v. Board, 1st (1954)
School segregation unconstitutional; segregation psychologically damaging;
overturned Plessy, separate but equal; clarified 14th Amendment; unanimous
decision of Warren Court.
Brown v. Board 2nd (1955)
Ordered schools to desegregate “with all due and deliberate speed.”
Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
Established exclusionary rule; illegally obtained evidence cannot be used in
court; Earl Warren wrote decision.
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Prohibited state-sponsored recitation of prayer in public schools by virtue of
1st Amendment’s established clause and 14th Amendment’s due process
clause; Earl Warren’s decision.
Baker v. Carr (1962)
“One man, one vote”; Ordered state legislative districts to be as near equal
as possible in population; Earl Warren….
Abbington v. Schempp (1963)
Prohibited devotional Bible reading in public schools by virtue of
establishment clause of 1st Amendment and due process clause.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Ordered states to provide lawyers (“adequate counsel”) for those unable to
afford them in criminal proceedings; clarified 6th Amendment.
Wesberry v. Sanders (1963)
Ordered House districts to be as near equal in population as possible.
Griswald v. Connecticut (1965)
Established right of privacy through 4th and 9th Amendments; set precedent
for Roe v. Wade (1973)
Miranda v. AZ (1966)
Established Miranda warnings of right to counsel and right to silence; must
be given before questioning; clarified 5th and 6th Amendments.
Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
Established 3-part test to determine if establishment clause violated:
nonsecular purpose, advances/inhibits religion, excessive entanglement with
government.
LBriones
Vocab to know
APGoPo
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Established national abortion guidelines; trimester guidelines: no state
interference in 1st trimester, state may regulate to protect health of mother in
2nd, state may regulate to protect health of unborn child in 3rd; inferred from
right of privacy established in Griswald v. Connecticut (1965).
U.S. v. Nixon (1974)
Allowed for executive privilege, but the privilege is not absolute—in this case,
not in a criminal case; “even the President is not above the law”; Watergate.
Buckley v. Valeo (1976)
1st Amendment protects campaign spending; legislatures can limit
contributions, but not how much one spends of his own money on
campaigns.
U.C. Regents v. Bakke (1978)
Alan Bakke and U.C. Davis Medical School; Bakke was white applicant; strict
quotas unconstitutional, but states may allow race to be taken into
consideration as ONE factor in admissions decisions; Bakke admitted.
Webster v. Reproductive Health
Services (1987)
More leeway for states in regulating abortion, though no overturning of Roe.
Texas v. Johnson (1989)
Struck down Texas law banning flag burning, which Court claimed was a
protected form of symbolic speech.
Planned Parenthood v. Casey
(1992)
States can regulate abortion, but not with regulations that impose “undue
burden” on women; did not overturn Roe, but gave states more leeway in
regulating abortion—e.g., 24-hour waiting period, parental consent for
minors, etc.
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
No racial gerrymandering; race cannot be the sold or predominant factor in
redrawing legislative boundaries; majority-minority districts.
U.S. v. Lopez (1995)
Gun Free School Zones Act exceeded Congress’ authority to regulate
interstate commerce; put limits on commerce clause.
Clinton v. NY (1998)
Banned presidential use of line-item veto.
Bush v. Gore (2000)
Use of 14th Amendment’s equal protection clause to stop Florida recount in
2000 presidential election; states can decide issues regarding elections.
Zelman v. Simmons-Harris
(2002)
Public money can be used to send disadvantaged children to religious
schools in tuition voucher program.
Ashcroft v. ACLU (2002)
Struck down federal ban on “virtual” child pornography.
Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
Using right to privacy, struck down Texas law banning sodomy.
Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
Struck down use of “bonus points” for race in undergraduate admissions at
University of Michigan.
Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
Allowed use of race as general factor in law school admissions at public
university, Univ. of Michigan; upheld Bakke.