Development Through the
Lifespan
Chapter 6
Emotional and Social
Development in
Infancy and Toddlerhood
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Psychosocial Stages During
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Age
Erikson’s Stage
First
Year
Basic Trust
versus
Mistrust
Responsiveness
Second
Year
Autonomy
versus
Shame and
Doubt
• Suitable guidance
• Reasonable choices
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Needed from
Caregivers
First Appearance
of Basic Emotions
Happiness
Anger
Fear
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• Smile – from birth
• Social smile – 6-10 weeks
• Laugh – 3–4 months
• General distress – from birth
• Anger – 4–6 months
• First fears – 2nd half of first year
• Stranger Anxiety – 8–12 months
Understanding
Emotions of Others
 Emotional Contagion
 Early infancy
 Recognize Other’s
Facial Expressions
 4-5 months
 Social Referencing
 By one year
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Social Referencing
 Relying on another person’s
emotional reaction to appraise an
uncertain situation
 Caregivers can use
to teach children
how to react
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Self-Conscious Emotions

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
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Shame
Embarrassment
Guilt
Envy
Pride
 Emerge middle of second year
 Children become aware of self as separate and unique
 Require adult instruction about when to feel these
emotions
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Emotional Self-Regulation
 Adjusting own state of emotional intensity
 Requires effortful control
 Grows over first year,
with brain development
 Caregivers contribute to
child’s self-regulation
style
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Temperament
 Reactivity: Speed and
intensity of
 Emotional arousal
 Attention
 Motor activity
 Self-regulation:
Strategies that modify
reactivity
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Structure of Temperament

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Easy – 40%
Difficult – 10%
Slow-to-warm-up – 15%
Unclassified – 35%
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Biological Basis
for Temperament
Inhibited, Shy
Uninhibited, Sociable
 React negatively,
withdraw from new
stimuli
 High heart rates,
stress hormones &
stress symptoms
 Higher right
hemisphere frontal
cortex activity
 React positively,
approach new stimuli
 Low heart rates,
stress hormones &
stress symptoms
 Higher left
hemisphere frontal
cortex activity
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Twins and Temperament
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Genetics and Environment
in Temperament
Genetic
Influences
Environmental
Influences
• Responsible for about half of
individual differences
• Ethnic and sex differences
• Nutrition
• Caregiving
• Cultural variations
Combines genetics and
Goodness-of-Fit environment
• Child-rearing to match temperament
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Shyness and Adjustment
in China
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Ethological
Theory of Attachment
1. Preattachment
2. Attachment-in-the-making
3. Clear-cut attachment
• Separation anxiety
4. Formation of a reciprocal
relationship
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Types of Attachment
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Secure – 65%
Avoidant – 20%
Resistant – 10-15%
Disorganized/
disoriented – 5–10%
Cultural Variations in
Attachment Security
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Factors that Affect
Attachment Security
 Opportunity for attachment
 Quality of caregiving
 Sensitive caregiving
 Interactional synchrony
 Infant characteristics
 Family circumstances
 Parents’ internal
working models
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Multiple Attachments
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Fathers
Siblings
Grandparents
Professional
caregivers
Fathers and Attachment
 Fathers as playmates, mothers as
caregivers in many cultures
 Important factors in attachment
 Sensitivity
 Warmth
 Family attitudes,
relationships
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Factors that Affect Attachment of
Children in Child Care
 Initial Attachment Quality
 Family Circumstances
 Quality of Child Care
 Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
 Extent of Child Care
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Attachment and
Later Development
 Secure attachment related to positive
outcomes in:
 Preschool
 Middle childhood
 Continuity of caregiving
may link infant
attachment and
later development
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Self-Development
 From birth
Self
Aided
by
intermodal
Awareness
perception
 Emerges in 2nd year
Self Helped by acting on
Recognition environment and noticing
effects
 Aided by self-awareness,
Empathy self-conscious emotions
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Categorical Self
 Categorize self and others
into social categories
 Age
 Physical characteristics
 Good or bad
 Use to organize behavior
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Effortful Control
 Effortful control
 Inhibiting impulses
 Managing negative emotions
 Behaving acceptably
 Children need
 Awareness of self as
separate and autonomous
 Confidence in directing own
actions
 Memory for instructions
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Compliance
 Understanding and obeying
caregivers’ wishes and standards
 Emerges between 12 and 18
months
 Toddlers assert autonomy by
sometimes not complying
 Warm, sensitive caregiving
increases compliance
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Helping Toddlers Develop
Compliance and Self-Control
 Respond with sensitivity and support
 Give advance notice of change in
activities
 Offer many prompts and reminders
 Reinforce self-controlled behavior
 Encourage sustained attention
 Support language development
 Increase rules gradually
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