Cross Purposes
Christian institutions in India: A web study
India policy Foundation
indiapolicy@gmail.com
Milind Oak
oakmilind@gmail.com
Cross Purposes: A Unique Study
• The objective of “Cross Purposes” study is to analyze and
understand the influence of religious forces; often those that are
exogenous to the society, nation and its civilization moorings.
• This study, while concentrating primarily on the role and extent of
reach of global and local Christian institutions, also recognizes the
unprecedented reach and influences of the Internet, a phenomenon
about which today’s intelligentsia seems to be undecided.
• Except for necessary global background and necessary historical
references, this study is focused on the status and activities of
Christian institutions in India in the period 2000–2012. If it raises
questions in the reader’s mind, they are the questions of the present
and perhaps of the immediate future, and hence, all the more
relevant to necessitate serious attention.
Data Sources
• There is a general sense of uneasiness about
credibility and reliability of information gathered
from Internet because the contents are user
generated.
The resources:
• However; data provided by various
government websites can be used as
authentic. Similar is the case with various court
judgments; information taken from an NGO’s
or institution’s website and newsletter, whether
factually correct or not, can be taken as the
official viewpoint of that institution.
• Court Judgments
• Data used in this study belongs to above five
broad categories and is used in that priority,
whenever available, and cross-checked
whenever possible.
• Government
websites
• Official websites and
newsletters of
Christian
organizations.
• Independent media
news
• Various studies by
reputed intellectuals
Data Sources
Christianity In India
At a Glance
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Christianity in India: Three estimate
Source: 2001
Census
Evangelical
Estimates
Claims - respective
denominations
24.1 million (2.41
Crores)
constituting 2.3%
of the total
population of
2001.
India Missions
Association
As per “Annuario Pontifico” 2012
(Annual directory of the Vatican)
there are 1,65 Crores (16.5 million)
Roman Catholics (1.37% of
census 2011 total)
54.34%
population in 4
states (Tamil
Nadu, Kerala,
Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh)
29.09% Christians
in Northeast
4.5 Crore
Christians, 1
crore cryptoChristians.
World Christian
Encyclopedia
4.08 Crore
Christians and
2.15 crore cryptoChristians
Church of South India 40 lacs (4
million) membership; Church of
North India (CNI) members 15 lacs
(1.5 million)
Baptist World Alliance 25 lacs (2.5
million), Seventh day activist 15
lacs (1.5 million) where as United
Evangelical Lutheran Churches 45
lacs (4.5 million)
Christianity in India
• Census population
(projected) in 2011 is
2.81 Crore
• Denominational total
3.06 Crore excluding
non-denominational
Christians
• This study estimates at
least 40 lakh Crypto
Christians
Web of Christian Organizations
Church
Institutions
The Church
Activities of Church
itself using their
employees
Independent
Organization
Created by
denominations for
the purpose of social
activities
Religious
and
social
activities
Educational, health
related and social
activities by Church
and Dioceses
Global
Organizations
Denomination
independent
Organization
Institutions Statistics: The Churches
•
Catholic Church is organized in 30 Archdioceses (Latin 23, Syro
Malabar 5, Syro Malankara 2), 165 Dioceses (Latin 128, Syro
Malabar 29, Syro Malankara 8)
•
Church of South India (CSI) has 22 dioceses and 15,000
congregations
•
Church of North India (CNI) has 26 dioceses, 4,500 congregations
•
Baptist churches in India to be 14,969.
•
Seventh Day Adventists is having 3,987 churches
•
United Evangelical Lutheran Churches has 3,331 pastorates or
parishes
•
Indian Missions Association had 230 missions as members
•
20,000 nondenominational churches
Social, Educational and Health institutes of Church
•
The Catholic Church: 7,650 primary schools, 4,569 high schools, 1,494
higher secondary schools, 321 colleges and 865 various professional
educational institutes, including engineering and medical colleges
•
The Church of South India (CSI): 2,000 schools, 130 colleges and 104
hospitals. There are 50 rural development projects run by the CSI all
over India, in addition to 50 training centers for young people, and 500
residential hostels for a total of 35,000 children
•
The Church of North India (CNI) : 9 nursing schools, 250 educational
institutions and three technical training centers. CNI also runs 65
hospitals spread over 8 regional divisions, which are managed by
Synodical Board of Health Services.
•
The Seventh Day Adventist : 226 schools and 5 colleges
The Total of these entities is: 18,290
Human resources estimates
•
Catholic: 12,799 Diocesan priests, 9,977 religious priests, 3,031
religious brothers, 77,444 religious sisters, 3,761 lay missionaries and
43,417 Catechists
•
CSI: 22 Bishops, 1,214 priests and 2,000 pastors
•
CNI: 2000 pastors
•
United Evangelical Lutheran Churches: 1,824 pastors
•
Gospel for Asia: 10,000 missionaries
•
Indian Missions Association: has employed more than 50,000 persons
•
20,000 nondenominational churches: at least 20,000 priests
Total: 2,46,000
•
Assuming 10 persons are employed by Church affiliated Institutions:
Total: 1,82, 900
The Church Institution
The Management
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Managing the “Church Institution”
With our study revealing
approximately 250,000+ people
directly employed by the churches (as
bishops, priests, pastors, brothers,
sisters, missionaries, catechists) and
a huge additional task force to handle
the church controlled activities like
education institutes, professional
institutes and social activities:
It requires a super-complex legal
structure to handle the activities,
managing funds and assets
including lands and buildings.
How is it typically done:
• Entities with dual registration
registered under trust act as well as
a company under section 25
• Archbishop as president and chief
trustee;
It becomes very easy now for the
company to generate funds, employ
people, avail tax and government
benefits and sell and purchase land
assets directly. A web of educational
Institutions, diocesan social service
boards, diocese society trusts is
created under this structure.
Examples and Cases
• Nagpur Roman Catholic Diocesan
Private Limited” is a company
registered under Indian company act,
1913 and is also an endowment
registered under the Bombay Public
Trust Act 1950 with the Archbishop of
Archdiocese as its Direct General and
Chief Trustee.
• Church of South India Trust Association
is a legal holding body of the movable
and immovable properties of the
Church of South India. The CSI-TA is
registered Section 25 of the Indian
Companies Act 1956
•Baptist Church Trust Association
was incorporated under the
Indian Companies Act in 1932 to
hold the properties of Baptist
Churches, Baptist Unions, and
Baptist Missionary Society.
•Bombay Diocesan Trust
Association Pvt. Ltd. is a
Company incorporated
under the Companies Act 1956
and is also a Trust registered
under the Bombay Public Trust
Act.
“Bishop” is the Supreme Authority
As Bishop he has powers to:
•
Appoints priests, pastors,
brothers, sisters, missionaries,
catechists etc.
•
Decides and manages the
salaries of all these.
•
Decides and presides Church
functions, defines fees for
religious functions, manages
Church estates
As Head of educational
institutions a Bishop can:
• Appoints, transfers, promotes
and remove correspondents,
headmasters, teaching and nonteaching staff.
• Appoint and transfer diocesan /
religious priests, brothers and
sisters in the diocesan schools.
• Authorizes opening/ closing
upgrading / of educational
institution
• monitors the financial
administration.
Examples and Cases
• St. Andrew's Inter College, Gorakhpur
is run by Committee of Management
consists of 16 members, out of whom
9 members are ex officio members
and 4 are nominated members.
• The ex officio members are appointed
by the Lucknow Diocesan Trust
Association, a body registered under
the Companies Act and the Diocesan
Education Board.
• The Bishop of Lucknow is the ex
officio President of the Committee of
Management. the final authority to
appoint the Manager is the Bishop.
The Bishop of Kumbakonam
who is the Manager of all the
educational institutions and the
President of the Kumbakonam
Diocese Society is the President
of education committee (DEC)
also.
He is Manager of 7 Hr. Sec.
Schools, 8 High Schools, 33
Middle Schools, 55 Primary
Schools, 1 technical School, 1
deaf and dumb School and 4
nursery schools, 42 Hostels and
children's home.!!!
Salaries and Perks
•
Vicar: 14,000 to 16000 Rs. Per month
•
Priest: Rs. 7,000 to 10,000 PM
•
Religious brother or sister
Rs. 2,000 – 3,000 PM
•
Catechist Rs. 500 – 1,500 PM
•
Evangelist of CNI:
Rs. 2,000-3,000 PM
•
GFA missionary:
Rs. 4,000 – 6,000 PM
•
Travel allowance for two wheelers,
four wheelers according to grades
•
Accommodation
•
Percentage of income from religious
functions of Church
Duel Employment:
Kumar Raja Jospeh is a priest
of Tuticorin. At the same time
he is Principal, B.Ed. College
of Tuticorin.
Fr. Jerald Ravi is the director
of 'Pavalam' TV, Tuticorin.
In Jhabua, 44 Nuns from 22
various sisters Congregations
all over India work in the
convents of the diocese.
The Church Institution
The Funding
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Indigenous funds
Sources:
Contribution:
•
•
Priests who are sent
abroad for missions are
obliged to pay regular
monthly contribution fixed
by the Diocese.
•
10 percent of their monthly
income from the employees
to the church.
•
Contributions from
educational institutes
Funds collection from Annual
religious functions like Second
Sundays, Christmas, Good Friday,
Easter Sunday, Holy Childhood,
Mission Sunday, Peter's Pence,
Hunger and Disease, Vocation
Sunday.
•
Income from gardens, farms, and
teak plantations
•
Revenues from the Church
properties, land, houses, shops and
marriage halls and Parish schools
Example
•
An amount of Rs.
18,87,964 was
received by the
Bangalore archdiocese
in April 2012.
•
Rs. 9,19,756 were to
be forwarded to
Rome.
•
All of these collections
were collected by
Churches in the
jurisdiction of the
archdiocese.
Case study “Mizoram” by Jonathan J. Bonk
Mizoram is now 90% Christian and
now not only exports
missionaries but funds also.
Today the Mizoram Presbyterian
Synod Mission Board supports
more than 1,700 fulltime workers.
In 2007, Mizoram Presbyterians
gave Rs.598,714,400/-
($12.721million U.S.) to the
church. Of this, Rs. 229,069,400/($4.9 million U.S.) was devoted to
world evangelization.
Dr. Jonathan J. Bonk is the
Executive Director of the Overseas
Ministries Study Center in New
Haven, Connecticut, and editor of
the International Bulletin of
Missionary Research.
The source of information he
mentions is “These 2007 statistics
were provided by Rev. Zosangliana
Colney, Secretary, Synod Mission
Board, Synod Office, Aizawl,
Mizoram 796001, in an email to me
dated October 3, 2008.”
Foreign funds
Source:
http://mha.nic.in/fcra.htm
3,014 organizations received more
than 1 Crore Rs. for at least one
year in the period 2006 - 2011
1,134 of them were identified as
Christian organizations
Together they received Rs.
16,214,96,01,508 (16 thousand
214 Crore) in this period.
20 organizations received more
than 100 Crore In this period.
“The ministries tend to be dependent
in external funding, more so from the
West, Singapore, Malaysia, South
Korea, America and so on. The
meaning of all partnership boils down
to how much fund could be extracted
from the relationship. In the long run
it breeds guilt ridden paternalistic and
/ or controlling relationships. Dignity
is out of the windows.”
Dr. K. Rajendran, the General
Secretary of Indian Missions
Association. (Statement in 2010)
The Church Institution
The “FCRA Analytics”
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
More than 100 Crores in 2006-11
State wise Distribution
Districts with more than 5 Institutions
Distribution of money: Top 4 states (1/2)
Distribution of money: Top 4 states (2/2)
The “Real Estate” Estimates & Examples
Historically land
was an integral part
of the Church.
• Church of North
India 50,000 Cr.
Rs.
• Church of South
India
1 Lakh Cr. Rs.
• Catholic Church
real estate greater
than CNI and CSI
combined
together.
In Bangalore, the CSI has the 13 acres land of Bishop
Cotton Boys School. Add to it schools like Bishop
Cotton Girls, Cathedral, St. John’s, churches like St.
Marks, St. Andrews, East Parade, Trinity, hospitals like
CSI, commercial complexes like the CSI Building on
Lavelle Road, Unity Buildings on Mission Road and the
acres surrounding it in CSI Compound and the value of
these holdings will cross Rs 15,000 Crores.
The Malankara Catholic Church in the Mullankolly
Panchayat of Waynad district in Kerala has some 45
parishes, each of which own between three and five
acres land. It also has what the Coffee Board terms, `a
model coffee plantation' at Nambiarkunnu, and a 90acre Coffee and pepper plantation at Kattikulam.
The GFA owns approx. 4500 Acres land including
rubber plantations and tourist spots.
The Church Institution
Frauds and litigations
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Frauds and Litigations select Cases
March 2012 Bishop Baiju Gavit arrested for illegal
sell of Church land for Rs. 5.5 Cr.
May 2011, the Crime Branch-CID of the Tamil
Nadu Police charge-sheeted the Bishop of CNI in
Coimbatore, Manickam Dorai, his two brothers,
and four other accomplices with defrauding his
diocese of over Rs.4,25,00,000 [Rs.4.25 cr.]
Oct 13 2009, CBI arrested the former General
Secretary of the CSI Dr Pauline Sathiamurthy and
three members of her family. Accused of stealing
almost Rs.Rs.8.5 Cr. Of the Tsunami relief fund
sent by the Episcopal Church.
The Church Institution
The Elite Organizations
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Top 3 Elite Organizations
World Vision International
http://www.worldvision.org
Action Aid
http://www.actionaid.org/india
Gospel for Asia
http://www.gfa.org
(through anonymous proxy like
http://www.zend2.com; visiting the
website through India, it displays a
single page)
The World Vision International
•
As of 2010, World Vision
The World Vision Triple Role
International active in almost
• ‘Religious’ organization in USA
exempted as a religious
organization to get Government aid
and yet to discriminate on the basis
of religion while employing people
100 countries, through 40,000
employees. $2.5 billion budget.
•
In 2010, World Vision US
raised $1 billion, with 75%
coming from private donations.
One million American donors.
•
World Vision India established
in 1976, As on April, 2010 it
was working in 174 locations
and 5,306 communities.
• ‘Evangelical’ organization
Internationally (Active participation
in Lausanne - the global
evangelical movement)
• ‘Social and Economic’ in India
(Participates in many Government
Schemes)
A simple question …
A Child Sponsorship or Area Development Programme?
Watershed
development,
community
mobilization
and water
table
management
Providing
drinking water
facilities,
toilets and
urinals in schools, providing desks and
benches, sports materials and learning
aids, building additional classrooms.
Controversies ..
ABC TV Australia 29 Nov 2008, Programme: Ethiopia – The Endless Famine; “Africa
Correspondent Andrew Geoghegan travels to Ethiopia to meet 14-year-old
Tsayhnesh Degalo. He’s sponsored her for most of the past decade through World
Vision. He’s surprised to discover virtually none of the money he donates goes to the
family. The child even did not know until now that she has a sponsor. Andrew was
told by World Vision the child is learning English at school and has been improving,
but when he discovered, the child doesn’t speak English at all.
When this news was published, hundreds responded on web
confirming Andrew’s experience.
World Vision Official Response: The journalist was ‘surprised' his sponsored child's
family didn't receive the money he gives. World Vision unapologetically takes a
community-based approach to development – a fact we publicly promote at every
opportunity. Providing money directly to the families of sponsored children simply
does not work, no matter how dire the circumstances. A ‘direct benefit' approach
creates jealousy among community members that do not have sponsored children
and fosters an ethos of dependency.
The Action Aid
Rapidly emerging international organization based in the UK.
Its income of Rs. 578 cr. Rs. (£68.1million) in 2001 jumped
to Rs.Rs.1,617 cr. (€231 million) in 2010.
In 2001, the claim of total global reach was of over 9 million
people.
In 2010 Action Aid India alone claimed to have reached to
about 8 million women, children and men in 24 states and
one Union Territory, covering 281 districts in India, through
its 12 regional offices.
Action Aid had 120,000 individual donors in 2001.
Action Aid – Board (2010)
• 1. Ms. Shabana Azmi,
Chairperson
• 2. Prof. Shantha Sinha,
Vice Chairperson
(Chairperson, National
Commission for Protection of Child
Rights)
• 3. Mr. Vijay Shunglu, Treasurer
(former Auditor-General of India)
• 4. Ms. Kamla Bhasin, Member
(feminist, founder of jagori – FCRA
data shows that jagori gets foreign
donations from many Christian
organizations including Action
Aid)
• 5. Mr. P Chennaiah, Member
• 6. Ms. Rita Sarin (Country Director of
The Hunger Project in India),Member
• 7. Dr. Ruth Manorama, Member
(President, National Alliance of Women,
advocate of Dalit women issues)
• 8. Mr. Shankar Venkateswaran,
Member
• 9. Dr. Syeda Hameed, Member
(Member, Planning Commission, Govt. of
India)
• 10. Mr. Sandeep Chachra, Ex-Officio
Secretary (Executive Director)
The Action Aid - Actions
Action Aid supported the World Social Forum, the India Social Forum and
locally, the Gujarat Social Forum.
Spandana in Andhra Pradesh brings its partner communities (Dalits,
indigenous people, migrant labourers, trafficked persons, children in difficult
situations, women, fishing communities, people living with HIV & AIDS, and,
sex workers) on a single platform to demand rights denied to them.
In 2008, Action Aid prepared a shadow report contravening the government
report submitted to the UN High Commissioner for Human rights on
ICESCR [International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights].
Action Aid calls its own report a Coalition Report of 152 NGOs in India in
Partnership with Action Aid.
All programs of Action Aid are on socio-political issues
Action Aid funds dilemma
2006 annual report says:
“During 2006, 56 per cent of our
income came from individual
donations collected mainly through
the child sponsorship
mechanism……
While the 2010 annual report
says:
“Child sponsorship funds constituted
73% of the total income of Action Aid
India ………..
AND YET THERE IS NO
MENTION OF CHILD
SPONSORSHIP IN
ANNUAL REPORTS
Slightly awkward “Action” to
resolve the dilemma:
TIME magazine reports in 2010:
“Jerry Almeida, then the fundraising
director of Action Aid India, was
shocked to discover an office in the
garage of their Bangalore
headquarters where some of the staff
were penning letters in a child's
scrawl. The letters were sent out to
individual donors all over the world,
allegedly written by the Indian children
people were paying to sponsor. The
forgeries were far from the
personalized interaction that the
charity led the sponsors to believe .. “
The Yohanan Empire
• GOSPEL FOR ASIA,
INC. is registered in
Arizona Corporation
Commission with KP
Yohanan as director,
Gisela Punnose (wife of
Yohanan)and Daniel
Punnose (son of Yohana)
as Vice-Presidents.
• Collected Rs.289 cr. In
USA in 2010
Gospel for Asia is a Trust in
Kerala with KP Yohanan as
managing trustee.
Believers Church, love India
Ministries and last hour
ministry are trusts related to
GFA in Kerala. They
received Rs. 257 Cr. In
2010-2011
The website “Miracle”
www.gfa.org from outside India
www.gfa.org from India
The Church Institution
The Conversions
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Christianity – Global Heartbeat
}
Just as in the first millennium the cross was planted on the soil of
Europe and in second on that of the Americas and Africa, we can
prey that in the third Christian millennium, great harvest of the faith will
be reaped in the vast and vital continent…
Pope John Paul II, in India (1999)
~
Bishop’s letter requesting for foreign funds
The last sentence says : It was unanimously felt and decided that our
institutions such as schools, boarding, hospitals etc. will be used as
Channel of evangelization.
Bishop’s letter continued ..
The two faces of Hepzibah Kore
Thousands learn to
read through literacy
program.
With stubs of chalk and
handheld slates the
women practiced the
swirly Tamil alphabet.
The instructor wrote
short sentences on a
large blackboard, as the
class repeated chorally
after her, again and
again. Then each
practiced writing the
words on her own slate.
The human angel behind this ministry is
Hepzibah Kore, Women’s Ministries director of
the Southern Asia Division, who has dedicated
her life to teaching India’s women to read.
From the humblest farming villages to
prostitutes in the Kolkata slums, Kore believes
that when women are able to read, their lives
will be transformed.
She travels thousands of kilometers every year
to visit her more than 200 literacy classes at five
states: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
West Bengal, and Garo Hills.
At each site Kore first trains teachers, provides
teaching materials, then helps the classes take
shape.
The two faces of Hepzibah Kore
Women Conduct Groundbreaking Outreach
Program in Andhra Pradesh
More than 1,100 people were baptized earlier this
month during the first women-led evangelistic series
held by Seventh-day Adventists in India. The 11-day
program, held in Andhra Pradesh, demonstrated the
tremendous impact women can have when they share
their love of Jesus through preaching, says Ardis
Stenbakken, women's ministries director for the
Adventist world church.
Hepzibah Kore, women's ministries leader for the
Adventist Church in India, came up with the idea and
made it happen, says Stenbakken.
The series was funded in part by the Adventist world
headquarters' Council on Evangelism and Witness,
to encourage world headquarters employees to
engage in public evangelism.
Friends Missionary Prayer Band
The Maltos of Jharkhand : a case of slow and steady progress
1995 Update: Before FMPB missionaries began working among them, the
Malto were a ferocious tribe given to idol worship, drunkenness and
violence. over the past ten years, 28,000 of the Indians have turned to
Christ, according to Hemachandar, assistant general secretary of the
mission organization.
1997 update: An Indian mission called the Friends Missionary Prayer Band
began evangelizing the Maltos in 1978. As a result, 30,000 have accepted
Christ, and 360 congregations have been established.
2000 update : 1822 Maltos were converted to Christianity in year 2000.
2008 update: there are about 49,000 Christians, 560 worshipping schools,
170 Church buildings, one leadership training institute, one bible school,
seven children’s homes, and seven schools in the malto area. FMPB has
developed a long term vision called TEAM 2010 (total evangelism among
the Maltos by 2010).”
The Google Images: Excellent source
Search “Baptism <Name of City>”; Click on images to open the website.
The Andhra Pradesh Case study
Comparing the Google image search ‘Baptism +district’ data with funds
The funds
The conversions
The unfinished agenda
• Considering India from missionary viewpoint Out of 953
ethnic peoples groups (population above 10,000), the
gospel has reached to almost 750 groups.
• out of 27,000 pin code areas, 9,000 areas have at least
one pastor or Christian worker residing in that area.
• Portions of Bible are available in more than 203
languages. The complete Bible is available in forty-nine
of these languages.
The Seventh Day Adventist Year book
Comparison 2000 and 2011
The Church Institution
Concluding the study
Cross Purposes: A Web Study
Conclusion
• This study has entirely focused on the actual action
happening on the ground. As far as possible, the
approach is of passive documentation of what the
documents on the Internet are revealing.
• This study will raise different questions in the minds of
different people. For example, may be someone who has
studied the theoretical papers of Christians extensively,
will term the activities of ACTION AID, CASA and
CARITAS as expressions of ‘liberation theology’.
• This study refrains itself from theorization of actions.
However, it will not be entirely out of context to raise
certain questions.
Questions raised ..
The first and foremost of the question will be — is the Christian laity
happy with the management of the institutions? Do they feel that they
have some say in the management of these institutions that are being
funded and run in the name of their faith? Do they feel that there are
enough mechanisms to avoid misuse of the vast money and real
estate?
The second, and more serious question, will be: when a religious
community, by its direct or indirect deeds, employs thousands of people–
either part-time or fulltime – in such institutions where the very structure
and the thought encourages them to destroy other religious faiths,
and collects indigenous as well as foreign funds for the purpose,
can it be said that such a community really desires peaceful co-existence
with other religious faiths?
The National Interest
India’s Prime Minister recently mentioned on an international
forum the role of certain NGOs with respect to the Kundakulam
nuclear plant project proposed to be built in Tamil Nadu.
Is the concern of the Government of India limited to such
occasional issues, or is it aware of the larger design and handin-glove relationship of evangelical NGOs with the US and
European governments?
If so, then how can World Vision take advantage of being a
religious NGO in US, participate in strategic planning of
India’s evangelization on international forums and yet
partner in various Indian government schemes posing as a
social NGO in India?
The Ecclesiastical Activities?
The Bishop of the Catholic Church is appointed by the Pope in Vatican
City. While critics have objected to a functioning structure in India where
appointments are made by a person who is not Indian, the Catholic Church
has always maintained that these appointments are only for ecclesiastical
purposes — that is for spiritual and religious purposes only.
However, the information shows that regular funds are collected in India to
forward them to Rome. In educational institutes run by Christian missions
and organizations too, the Bishop acts as a decisive or only authority.
Does all this fall in to the category of ‘ecclesiastical activities?’ Or is
there effectively an external state, however nominal it may be,
controlling the secular institutes of India?