KINESIOLOGY OF WALKING
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
WALKING (AMBULATION)
Ideally, walking is performed efficiently to
minimize fatigue and safely to prevent falls and
associated injuries.
 Healthy people can ambulate wile carrying on a
conversation, looking in various directions, and
even handling obstacles and other destabilizing
forces with minimal effort.
 Individuals at both ends of the lifespan
experience challenges with ambulation.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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WALKING AT VARIOUS STAGES IN
LIFE
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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WALKING AT VARIOUS STAGES IN
LIFE
Early in life, the young child needs 11 to 15
months to learn how to stand and walk.
 By 4-5 years of age they refine the pattern of gait
so that it looks like that of an adult.
 Decreased strength, decreased balance, and
disease in the elderly become a gait challenge.
 The elderly may require a cane or walker to
ambulate safely.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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WALKING = INDEPENDENCE

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
“Nothing epitomizes a level of independence and
our perception of a good quality of life more than
the ability to travel independently under our own
power from one place to another. We celebrate
the development of this ability in children and
try to nurture and sustain it throughout the
lifespan.” – A. Palta
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MAREY’S INSTRUMENTED SHOES
FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF GAIT
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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MURRAY USED REFLECTIVE TARGETS
AND A CAMERA WITH THE SHUTTER
OPEN TO ANALYZE GAIT
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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ANALYSIS OF HUMAN MOTION
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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INSTRUMENTATION IN A TYPICAL
GAIT LABORATORY TO STUDY
WALKING
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL
DESCRIPTORS
Gait Cycle
 Stance and Swing Phases

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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GAIT CYCLE
Walking is the result of a cyclic series of
movements.
 It can be characterized by a detailed description
of the gait cycle (the fundamental unit of
walking).
 Foot contact typically begins with the heel.
 The beginning of the gait cycle is typically
referred to as heel contact or heel strike.
 The 100% point or completion of the gait cycle
occurs as soon as the same foot once again makes
contact with the ground.
 Initial contact is often used in place of heel
contact.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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GAIT CYCLE
A stride (synonymous with a gait cycle) is the
sequence of events taking place between
successive heel contacts of the same foot.
 A step is the sequence of events that occurs
within successive heel contacts of opposite feet
(i.e. between left and right heel contacts).
 A gait cycle has two steps- a left step and a right
step.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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GAIT CYCLE 15-6
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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SPATIAL DESCRIPTORS OF GAIT
Stride Length – the distance between two
successive heel contacts of the same foot.
 Step Length – the distance between successive
heel contacts of the two different feet.

Comparing right and left step length can be useful in
evaluating symmetry of gait in the lower extremities.
Step Width – step width is the lateral distance
between the heel centers of two consecutive foot
centers (average 8 to 10 cm).
 Foot Angle – the amount of “toe-out”. The angle
between the line of progression of the body and
the long axis of the foot (average 5 to 7 degrees).

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

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SPATIAL DESCRIPTORS OF GAIT 15-7
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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COMPONENTS OF GAIT CYCLE
Heel contact (heel strike)
 Stride
 Step
 Stride length
 Step length
 Step width
 Foot angle

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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TEMPORAL DESCRIPTORS OF GAIT
Cadence – the number of steps per minute (also
called step rate).
 Stride Time – the time for a full gait cycle.
 Step Time – the time for completion of a right or
left step.

With symmetric gait, step time can be derived from
cadence.
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

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SPATIAL-TEMPORAL DESCRIPTOR

Walking Speed
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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WALKING SPEED
Walking Speed combines both spatial and
temporal measurements by providing
information on the distance covered in a given
amount of time.
 The units of measure are typically meters per
second (m/sec) or miles per hour (mph).
 Calculating speed

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
Measure the time it takes to cover a given distance.
 Measure the distance covered in a given amount of
time.
 Multiply the step rate by the step length.


Speed may be the best and most functional
measurement of an individual’s walking ability.
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WALKING SPEED
For healthy adults, a gait cycle (2 consecutive
steps) takes slightly more than 1 second and
covers approximately 1.44 m (4.5 feet).
 This results in a walking speed of 1.37 m/sec.
 At a freely chosen walking speed, women exhibit
a slower walking speed, shorter step length, and
faster cadence than men.

These differences are likely in part due to
anthropometric disparities between genders;
however, even when anthropometrically matched
with men, women still demonstrate a higher cadence
and shorter step length than men when walking at
the same speed.
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

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NORMAL VALUES FOR WALKING
Walking speed: 1.37 m/sec (3 mph)
 Step rate: 1.87 steps/sec (110 steps/min)
 Step length: 72 cm (28 inches)

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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METHODS TO INCREASE WALKING
SPEED
Longer step length.
 Shorter gait cycle (faster walking cadence).

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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METHODS TO INCREASE WALKING
SPEED
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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INFLUENCE OF IMPAIRMENT ON
STEP LENGTH 15-8
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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INFLUENCE OF IMPAIRMENT ON
STEP LENGTH 15-8
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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ABNORMAL GATE EXAM
PARKINSON’S DISEASE
Parkinsonian Gait Demonstration This type of
gait is seen with rigidity and hypokinesia from
basal ganglia disease. The patient's posture is
stooped forward. Gait initiation is slow and steps
are small and shuffling; turning is en bloc like a
statue.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7SyTpEdhBL
w
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylHZWO17W
70

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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STANCE AND SWING PHASES




Stance phase (from right heel contact to right toe off).


Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

To describe the events taking place during the gait
cycle, it is customary to subdivide the gait cycle from
0% to 100%.
Heel or foot contact with the ground is considered the
start of the gait cycle (0%).
The next ground contact made from the same foot is
considered the end of the gait cycle (100%).
A full gait cycle can be divided into two major phases.
The right foot is one the ground supporting the body’s weight.
Swing phase (from right toe off to the next right heel
contact).

The right foot is in the air, being advanced forward for the next
contact with the ground.
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SIMPLE CLINICAL MEASUREMENTS
OF WALKING
Sophisticated instrumentation such as walkways
and foot switches exist to make spatial and
temporal measurements; however, these are not
necessary.
 Average walking speed can be measured using a
stopwatch and a known distance.
 Step length and step width can be measured
using ink marks made by shoes or feet on a roll of
paper covering the floor.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

Documents abnormal gait patterns including
asymmetry in step length.
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MINIMUM STANDARDS BASED ON
COMMUNITY-LIVING ACTIVITIES
Compare your results with normal values or with
minimum standards required to perform a
specific task (i.e. crossing the street within the
time allowed by the stoplights.
 Minimum standards based upon communityliving activities:

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
The ability to walk 300 m (1000 feet) in less than 11.5
minutes (walking speed of 0.45 m/sec or 1 mph).
 The ability to walk at a speed of 1.3 m/sec (3 mph) for
13 to 27 m (42 to 85 feet) to cross a street safely.

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HESITANCY CROSSING THE STREET

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lc32tnYCe1E
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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GAIT CYCLE
Stance Phase = 60% of gait cycle
 Swing Phase = 40% of gait cycle

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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SUBDIVISION OF THE GAIT CYCLE
15-10
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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GAIT CYCLE: BREAKDOWN OF
COMPONENTS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5j4YRHf6Iyo
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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SUBDIVISION OF STANCE AND
SWING PHASES

Five specific events are typically described during
stance phase:





Heel contact
Foot flat
Mid stance
Heel off (heel rise)
Toe off
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

Three specific events are typically described
during the swing phase:
Early swing
 Mid swing
 Late swing

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STANCE PHASE




Dr. Michael P. Gillespie

Heel contact – the instant the heel comes in contact
with the ground (occurs at 0% of the gait cycle).
Foot flat – the instant the entire plantar surface of
the foot comes in contact with the ground (occurs at
approximately 8% of the gait cycle).
Mid stance – the point at which the body’s weight
passes directly over the supporting lower extremity.
The point when the foot of the lower extremity in the
swing phase passes the lower extremity in the stance
phase (feet are side by side). (occurs at 30% of the gait
cycle or 50% of the stance phase)
Heel off (heel rise) – the instant the heel comes off the
ground (occurs between 30% and 40% of the gait
cycle).
Toe off – the instant the toes come off the ground
(occurs at 60% of the gait cycle).
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PUSH OFF
A period referred to as push off is also often used.
 This period roughly corresponds to the movement
of ankle plantar flexion at 40% to 60% of the gait
cycle.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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SWING PHASE
Early swing – the period of time from the time of
toe off to mid swing (60% to 75% of the gait
cycle).
 Mid swing – the time from slightly before to
slightly after the mid stance event of the opposite
lower extremity, when the foot of the swing limb
passes next to the foot of the stance limb (75% to
85% of the gait cycle).
 Late swing – the period from the end of mid
swing to foot contact with the ground (85% to
100% of the gait cycle).

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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TERMINOLOGY DEFINING
SUBDIVISIONS OF GAIT CYCLE
Events
Percentage of Events of
Cycle
Opposite
Limb
Stance
Heel Contact
Foot Flate
0
8
10
30
30-40
50
60
Mid Stance
Heel Off
Toe Off
Swing
Early Swing
Mid Swing
Late Swing
Heel Contact
60-75
75-85
85-100
90
100
Toe Off
Mid swing
(25%-35%)
Heel Contact
Mid-stance
(80%)
Heel off (8090%)
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
Phases
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GAIT CYCLE - PERRY
8 events
 7 Periods

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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EVENTS OF GAIT CYCLE - PERRY
Initial contact
 Opposite toe off
 Heel rise
 Opposite initial contact
 Toe off
 Feet adjacent
 Tibia vertical
 Initial contact

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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PERIODS OF GAIT CYCLE - PERRY

Stance phase
Loading response
 mid stance
 Terminal stance
 Pre swing

Swing phase
Initial swing
 Mid swing
 Terminal swing
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie


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EVENTS OF GAIT CYCLE 15-12
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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NORMAL GAIT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYVyoFdJHd
U
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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ABNORMAL GAIT

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnMpHwBCl
w8&index=3&list=PLt9rbdWnb3kjThf6oUGhdrd
6TcNpYFgU2
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DISPLACEMENT AND CONTROL OF
THE BODY’S CENTER OF MASS
Walking can be described as a series of losses and
recoveries of balance.
 Ambulation is initiated by allowing the body to
lean forward.
 For a fall to be prevented, momentary recovery of
balance is achieved by moving either foot forward
to a new location.
 Once gait is initiated, the body’s forward
momentum carries the center of mass (CoM) of
the body beyond the foot’s new location,
necessitating a step forward with the other foot.
 Ambulation stops when foot placement stops the
forward momentum of the body.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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DISPLACEMENT OF THE CENTER OF
MASS
The body’s center of mass (CoM) is located just
anterior to the second sacral vertebra, but the
best visualization of the movement of the CoM is
by tracking the displacement of the head or torso.
 The most notable displacement of the body
during gait is in the forward direction; however,
displacement also occurs in the vertical and sideto-side directions.

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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DISPLACEMENT OF CENTER OF
MASS
Total Vertical Displacement: 5 cm
 Total side-to-side displacement: 4 cm

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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CENTER OF MASS DISPLACEMENT
15-13
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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TRANSFER BETWEEN KINETIC AND
POTENTIAL ENERGY DURING GAIT
15-14
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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EXCESSIVE DROP OF ILIAC CREST
FROM WEAK GLUTEUS MEDIUS 1518
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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INCREASED ENERGY COST OF
WALKING WITH SPECIFIC
CONDITIONS 15-4
Increased Energy Cost (%)
Immobilization of one ankle
3-6
Immobilization of one knee in
full extension
23-33
Immobilization of one knee at 45
degrees of flexion
37
Immobilization of one hip,
arthrodesis
32
Unilateral transtibial
amputation, walking with
prosthesis
20-38
Unilateral transfemoral
amputation, walking with
prosthesis
20-60
Postcerebrovascular accident
55
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
Conditions
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PATH OF THE CENTER OF
PRESSURE 15-32
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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GAIT DYSFUNCTIONS
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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CAUSES OF PATHOLOGIC GAIT
PATTERNS
Pain
 Central Nervous System Disorders
 Musculoskeletal System Impairments

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXION
CONTRACTURE
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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WEAK ANKLE DORSIFLEXORS
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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EXCESSIVE ANKLE PLANTAR
FLEXION
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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WEAK QUADRICEPS LEADING TO
ANTERIOR TRUNK LEAN
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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KNEE FLEXION CONTRACTURE
RESULTING IN CROUCHED GAIT OF
THE STANCE LIMB
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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HIP CIRCUMDUCTION DURING
SWING
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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ATAXIC GAIT DEMONSTRATION
The patient's gait is wide-based with truncal
instability and irregular lurching steps which
results in lateral veering and if severe, falling.
This type of gait is seen in midline cerebellar
disease. It can also be seen with severe lose of
proprioception (sensory ataxia)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpiEprzObIU
&list=PLCB588B387FB08409

Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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NORMAL AND ABNORMAL GAIT
SERIES

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLt9rbdW
nb3kjThf6oUGhdrd6TcNpYFgU2
Dr. Michael P. Gillespie
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