Process Versus Need-Based
Theories of Motivation
Need-Based Theories
– Reflect a content perspective.
– Try to list specific things that motivate behavior.
–specific things that motivate behavior.
Process-Based Theories
– Focus on how motivated behavior occurs.
– Explain how people go about satisfying their needs.
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6-1
The Equity Theory of Motivation
Equity Theory
– Based on the relatively simple premise that people in
organizations want to be treated fairly.
Equity
– The belief that we are being
treated fairly in relation to others.
Inequity
– The belief that we are being
treated unfairly in relation to others.
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6-2
Forming Equity Perceptions
Step 1
A person
evaluates how
he or she is
being treated
by the firm.
Step 2
The person
forms a
perception of
how a
“comparison
other” is
being treated.
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People in organizations form
perceptions of the equity of
their treatment through a
four-step process.
Step 3
The person
compares his
or her own
circumstances
with those of
the comparison
other.
Step 4
On the strength
of this feeling,
the person may
choose to
pursue one or
more
alternatives.
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The Equity Comparison Process
Equity theory describes the equity comparison
process in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio.
Outcomes (self)
Inputs (self)
compared with
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Outcomes (other)
Inputs (other)
6-4
figure 6.1
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Responses to
Perceptions of
Equity and
Inequity
6-5
Evaluations and Implications
Research findings support predictions of equity
theory for responses to inequity.
Equity theory offers managers three messages:
– Everyone in the organization needs to understand the bases
for rewards.
– People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they
perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible
and others intangible.
– People base their actions on their perceptions of reality.
IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER
CULTURES?
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6-6
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The Basic Expectancy Model
– Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something
and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.
Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
– A person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to
successful performance.
Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
– A person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to
certain (desired) outcomes.
Outcomes and Valences
– The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a
particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person.
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6-7
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
figure 6.2
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6-8
The Porter-Lawler Model
The model predicts that satisfaction is
determined by the perceived equity of
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for
high-level performance.
figure 6.3
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Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler,
Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © 1968.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
6-9
Evaluation and Implications
Research studies have confirmed:
– The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences
with performance and outcomes.
– That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing
expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance,
and that performance will lead to desired rewards.
– That expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S.
better than elsewhere. What is its applicability in other
cultures?
• IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?
• WOULD IT APPLY HERE?
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6-10
Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
Practical use of the theory by managers:
– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals.
– Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
– Make sure the rewards are large enough.
– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
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6-11
Learning as a Cognitive Process
Prior learning influences our behavioral
choices. The perceived consequences of
those choices become in turn a part of
learning and affect future behavioral choices.
figure 6.4
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6-13
Reinforcement Theory and Learning
Reinforcement Theory
– Based on the idea that behavior is a
function of its consequences.
• Behavior that results in pleasant
consequences (reward) is likely
to be repeated.
• Behavior that results in unpleasant
consequences is less
likely to be repeated.
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6-14
Types of Reinforcement
in Organizations
Positive Reinforcement
Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement)
Extinction
Punishment
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6-15
Types of Reinforcement
in Organizations
Positive Reinforcement
•A reward or other desirable consequence that
follows behavior
Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement)
•Also known as negative reinforcement; rather
than receiving a reward following a desirable
behavior, the person is given the opportunity to
avoid an unpleasant consequence
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6-16
Types of Reinforcement
in Organizations
Extinction
•Decreases the frequency of behavior by
eliminating a reward or desirable
consequence that follows that behavior.
Punishment
•An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence
that results from behavior.
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6-17
Kinds of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement and avoidance can be used
to motivate desired behaviors by employees.
figure 6.5
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6-18
Kinds of Reinforcement
Extinction and punishment can be used
to change undesired employee
figure 6.5
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6-19
Schedules of Reinforcement
in Organizations
Schedule of Reinforcement
Nature of Reinforcement
Continuous
Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Fixed-Interval
Behavior is reinforced according to some
predetermined constant schedule based on
time.
Variable-Interval
Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but
the time span varies from one time to the next.
Fixed-Ratio
Behavior is reinforced according to the number
of behaviors exhibited, with the number of
behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held
constant.
Variable-Ratio
Behavior is reinforced according to the number
of behaviors exhibited, but the number of
behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies
from one time to the next.
table 6.1
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6-20
Organizational Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification in Organizations
– Organizational behavior modification (OB mod) is the
application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings.
– Reinforcement theory says that the frequency of desirable
behaviors can be increased by linking those behaviors with
positive consequences.
– Behavior modification uses positive reinforcement to
encourage desirable behavior in employees.
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6-21
Organizational Behavior Modification
The Effectiveness of Behavior Modification
–Has not always been 100% effective in every workplace application.
• Managers frequently have only limited means for providing meaningful
reinforcement for their employees.
–Laboratory research is hard to generalize to the real world.
–Behavior modification may be effective for a limited time.
• The impact of the positive reinforcement wanes and employees come to
view it as a routine part of the compensation system.
The Ethics of OB MOD
–OB mod may compromise individual freedom of choice.
–OB mod may be considered managerial manipulation.
Is it CULTURE BOUND?
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6-22