Thinking Critically
and Creatively
Chapter 11
“The function of education is to
teach one to think intensively and
to think critically. Intelligence
plus character—that is the goal of
true education.”
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Critical thinking is needed to
solve the complex problems
in the world today.
For example:
“Now that I look back, I realize
that a life predicated on being
obedient and taking orders is a
very comfortable life indeed.
Living in such a way reduces to a
minimum one’s own need to
think.”
--Adolph Eichman who played a central role
in the killing of six million Jews
Fallacies in Reasoning
Patterns of incorrect reasoning
Appeal to A Questionable
Authority
Example: Using sports figures to
endorse products
Jumping to Conclusions
• A hasty generalization
• Example: One college student does
not pay back a loan. The bank
manager concludes that students
are poor risks for loans.
Making Generalizations
• Assume all members of the group
are the same
• Example: All lawyers are greedy.
Attacking the Person
• We attack the person rather than
discussing the issue.
• Example: Attacking the President to
sidetrack the issues
Appeal to Common Belief
• Just because it is common belief
does not make it true
• Example: At one time people
believed that the world was flat.
Common Practice
• If everyone does it, it must be OK
• Example: It’s OK to cheat on your
taxes. Everyone else does.
Appeal to Tradition
• We’ve always done it that way.
• Example: Some jobs are only for
men and others only for women.
Two Wrongs
• It is OK to do something wrong because other
people do it.
• Example: Someone cuts you off on the
freeway so you pull in front and cut them off.
Slippery Slope
• Dire consequences
• Example: If you fail this class, you
are a failure for life.
Wishful Thinking
• An extremely positive outcome is
proposed to distract from logic.
• Example: Get rich quick schemes
Appeal to Fear or Scare
Tactics
• Emotions interfere with rational
thinking.
• Example: Political advertisements
that describe dire consequences
Appeal to Pity
• Again, emotions replace logic.
• Example: Sob story
Appeal to Loyalty
• Group behavior, right or wrong
• Example: Voting for the candidate
who appears most popular
Appeal to Prejudice
• A stereotype in which all members
of a group are judged to be the
same
• Example: racial prejudices
Appeal to Vanity
• Making compliments
• Example: “Apple polishing”
Post Hoc Reasoning or False
Causes
• Cause and effect are not related.
• Example: Superstitions
Straw Men or Women
• Create an image of someone else, like a
scarecrow, to discredit the person.
• Example: Political speeches which
paint the opponent in an unfavorable
light
Cult Behavior
• Beliefs for which hard evidence is
lacking
• Example: Cults such as Heaven’s
Gate
• The opposite of critical thinking
• Blindly following a charismatic
leader
• Belonging to a group
Critical Thinking Over the Internet
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Beware of appearances.
What is the source?
Why was the information posted?
What is the date of the Web site?
Can the information be verified elsewhere?
Beware of Scams
• It’s too good to be true.
• There is a rush to make a decision.
• You have to pay money or give your
credit card number.
• High pressure, time limits
• Prizes and big promises
• The word “free”
How to Become a Critical Thinker
Universal Standards to
Assure Quality Thinking
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Clarity
Accuracy
Precision
Relevance
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Depth
Breadth
Logic
Fairness
Alternative Views
The Critical Thinking Process
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State the problem in a clear way
Identify the alternative views
Watch for fallacies in reasoning
Find at least 3 different answers
Construct your own reasonable view
Exercise: Critical Thinking
Tips for Critical Thinking
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Beware of your mind-set.
Be willing to say, “I don’t know.”
Practice tolerance.
Understand different points of view.
Understand before criticizing.
Emotions get in the way of clear
thinking.
• Examine the source.
Questions for Critical
Thinkers
• Who said it?
• What makes the author think so?
• So what?
Critical Thinking and Moral
Reasoning
Level 1: Pre-Conventional
Morality
Obedience and punishment:
Heinz should not steal the drug
because it is against the law.
Heinz should steal the drug because
the pharmacist is asking too much
money for it.
Level 1: Pre-Conventional
Morality
Individualism and exchange:
Heinz should not steal the drug
because he will be unhappy if he goes
to prison.
Heinz should steal the drug because
he will be happier if he can save his
wife.
Level 2: Conventional
Morality
Interpersonal relationships:
Heinz should not steal the drug
because stealing is bad and he is not
a criminal.
Heinz should steal the drug because
he is a good husband and wants to
take care of his wife.
Level 2: Conventional
Morality
Maintaining social order:
Heinz should not steal the drug because the law
prohibits stealing. If everyone broke the law,
there would be no order in society.
Heinz should steal the drug, but be prepared
to accept the punishment and repay the
druggist.
Level 3: Post-Conventional
Morality
Social contract and individual rights: Heinz
should not steal the drug because a scientist
has a right to fair compensation which
encourages new research.
Heinz should steal the drug because
everyone has the right to life, regardless
of the law.
Level 3: Post-Conventional
Morality
Universal principles:
Heinz should not steal the drug
because others may need the drug
just as badly and all lives are equally
important.
Heinz should steal the drug because
saving a human life is more important
than property rights.
What resolution does
Kohlberg suggest?
Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is part of the critical
thinking process. Use it for:
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Generating alternatives
Thinking of possibilities
Creative problem solving
Creating new ideas
Using more of your potential
The Creative Individual
• Asks, “Why?”
• Is curious about the world
• Looks at many possibilities or
alternatives (divergent thinking)
The Three S’s of Creativity
• Sensitivity
• Synergy
• Serendipity
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Uses the senses to discover the world
Asks, “Why does this happen?”
“How can I do this?”
Problem finders as well as problem solvers
• Two or more elements are associated in a
new way and the result is greater than the
sum of the parts.
• Example: “Two heads are better than one.”
• Unexpected discoveries
• Lucky accidents
• Some examples . . . .
Serendipity
Remember Alexander Fleming?
Serendipity: Duke Ellington
Creative Thinking Techniques
Brainstorming
• Quantity without regard
to quality as a first step
• Time limit
• Goal or quota
• Wild and unusual is good
• Use synergy by doing it in a group
• Use fantasy and imagination
• Select the best ideas as a last step
Brainstorming Exercise:
The Peanut
Look at your peanut.
How is this peanut like
you?
Can you come up with 10 answers
in 3 minutes?
Let’s hear your creative ideas.
How is this peanut like you?
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It’s wrinkled, like me.
It’s brown, like me.
It cracks under pressure.
What you see is not always what
you get.
• Everyone is different.
• It just sits in class.
How is this peanut like going to
college?
Let’s use some synergy and work
together on this one.
How many answers can we come
up with in 5 minutes?
You can build on other people’s
ideas.
How is this peanut like going
to college?
• There are 2 nuts inside. One is the teacher
and one is the student.
• We’re all nuts to a degree!
• College drives me nuts!
• It’s rough.
• We both went to class today.
Elements of Creativity
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Use the pressure of a time limit.
Use a goal or quota.
Be relaxed.
Suspend judgment.
Focus your attention.
Have fun with it.
Use a different perspective.
More Techniques
Relaxed Attention
• The paradox of:
– Ho-hum
– Aha!
• Relax and then focus.
Relaxed Attention
• Think about it.
• Relax and let it incubate.
• The creative inspiration is the aha!
Use Relaxed Attention in
Studying
• If you get stuck on a problem, relax and come
back to it later.
• You are likely to come up with a creative
inspiration while relaxing.
• Come back to the problem and solve it.
Idea Files
• Ideas you find interesting
• Can you think of examples?
Visualization and Imagination
Useful for:
• Memory
• Relaxation
• Creativity
Exercise:
Using Visualization and
Imagination
Can you make the light go
on?
More Creativity Techniques
• Read
• Keep a journal
• Think critically
Keys to Success:
Learn to Laugh at Life
Have a laugh at life and look
around for happiness instead of
sadness.
--Red Skelton
The physical act of smiling
makes you feel happier.
If you do not feel happy, smile
and pretend to be happy.
Smiling produces serotonin which is a
neurotransmitter linked with feelings of
happiness.
So, smile and be happy. Use your
creativity to make some positive
changes in your life.