Chapter 18: Late Adulthood:
Social and Personality
Development
Development Across the Lifespan
Personality Development and Successful Aging
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Whether personality changes or stays stable in
late adulthood depends on which facets of
personality are considered.
According to Costa and McCrae, basic
personality traits remain stable.
agreeableness
satisfaction
intellect
extroversion
energy
Some changes in personality occur as a result of
new challenges that appear in later
adulthood.
 Erikson labeled the last stage of
personality development EGOINTEGRITY-VERSUS-DESPAIR,
which is characterized by a
process of looking back over
one's life, evaluating it, and
coming to terms with it.
Erikson, continued
• Integrity comes when people feel they
have realized and fulfilled the possibilities
that have come their way.
• Despair occurs when people feel
dissatisfied with their life, and experience
gloom, unhappiness, depression, anger,
or the feeling that they have failed
changes in personality: peck’s developmental tasks
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Robert Peck suggests that personality
development in elderly people is
occupied by three major developmental
tasks or challenges.
The first is REDEFINITION OF SELF
VERSUS PREOCCUPATION WITH
WORK-ROLE, which means that those
in old age must redefine themselves in
ways that do not relate to their work-roles
or occupations.
(peck’s developmental tasks, continued)
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The second major task is BODY
TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS BODY
PREOCCUPATION, a period in which
people must learn to cope with and move
beyond changes in physical capabilities
as a result of aging.
The third developmental task is EGO
TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS EGO
PREOCCUPATION in which elderly
people must come to grips with their
coming death.
Changes in personality: Levinson’s views on the
Winter of Life
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According to Daniel Levinson, people enter
late adulthood after passing through a
transition stage that typically occurs about
age 60 to 65.
During this transition time people begin to
view themselves as entering late adulthood.
People struggle with being "old", and often
must face illness and death of one's friends
and loved ones
( Levinson’s views on the winter of life, continued)
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People must struggle with the
loss of power, respect, and
authority.
People can serve as resources
for younger people and be in a
position to give advice.
Old age brings freedom to do
things for fun and
entertainment
Coping with Aging: Bernice Neugarten’s Study
• Rather than focusing on commonalities of
aging, this classic study focused on the
different ways that people cope with aging.
• Four different personality types among those in
their 70’s
– Disintegrated & disorganized
– Passive-dependent personalities
– Defended personalities
– Integrated personalities
– Disintegrated & disorganized
• Unable to accept aging
• Experience despair as they age
• Often end up in nursing homes, or are
hospitalized
– Passive-dependent personalities
• Lead lives filled with fear
– Illness
– Future
– Inability to cope
• May seek out hope, even when not
needed
– Defended personalities
• Seek to ward off aging
• May try to act young
– Exercise vigorously
– Youthful activities
• Unrealistic expectations may lead to
disappointment
– Integrated personalities
• Most successful
• Cope comfortably with aging
• Accept becoming older & maintain self dignity
~Most people studied fell into the final category
Erikson, Peck, Levinson &
Neugarten all suggest that a
major characteristic of
personality development in old
age is looking backward, called
a LIFE REVIEW, where people
examine and evaluate their
lives.
Life Review & Reminiscence: The Common Theme
of Personality Development
• According to Robert Butler, the life review
is triggered by the increasing awareness
that one will die.
• There are benefits to a life review.
– a better understanding of one's life
– resolution of lingering problems
– a sense of sharing and mutuality with
others like them
– may improve memory
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A life review is not always positive.
– People may become obsessed with the past.
– This may cause psychological dysfunction
Overall, a life review and reminiscence can play
an important role in the ongoing lives of the
elderly
– Continuity between past & present
– Increases awareness of the contemporary
world
– New insights
(Overall personality growth & development!)
Age Stratification Approaches to Late Adulthood
• Age stratification theories suggest that
economic resources, power & privilege are
distributed unequally among people at different
stages of the life course, impacting
development.
– Power declines among elderly in
industrialized nations lead to more distance
between this group and young adults
~These theories help explain why aging is
viewed more positively in less industrialized
societies
Culture Shapes the Way We Treat People in
Adulthood
• Cultures that revere old age have
several things in common.
– They are homogeneous in
socioeconomic terms and the elderly
control the finances.
– Older adults in these cultures
continue to engage in activities that
are valued by society.
– These cultures tend to be organized
around extended families.
Cultural differences in the way the elderly are
treated are often exaggerated
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The Eskimos do not leave their elderly to
die on ice floes.
• The Chinese revere old age but there is
great individual variation.
~ Important to avoid broad global statements
about how older adults are treated in a
given society!
Does Age Bring Wisdom?
• Wisdom: expert knowledge in the practical
aspects of life.
• This concept has received little attention from
gerontologists and other researchers
• Developmentalists disagree on whether we
should expect a relationship between wisdom and
aging.
– Is wisdom a trait that declines with age?
– Does wisdom reflect an accumulation of
knowledge, experience, and contemplation?
Another challenge: differentiating
wisdom from intelligence
• Timing?
– Intelligence
• Related to the here-and-now
• Logical & systematic thinking
– Wisdom
• Timeless quality
• Understanding of human behavior
~Psychologist Robert Sternberg: Intelligence
permits people to invent the atom bomb, wisdom
prevents them from using it
Successful Aging: What is the Secret?
• No proven way to age successfully
• How people age depends on personality
factors and personal circumstances
• 2 major approaches provide alternate
explanations
– Disengagement theory
– Activity theory
Disengagement Theory: Gradual Retreat
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According to DISENGAGEMENT
THEORY, the period in late adulthood
that marks a gradual withdrawal from the
world on physical, psychological, and
social levels; people withdraw from the
world and the world compels the elderly
to withdraw (e.g., retirement).
• The theory suggests that withdrawal is a
mutual process
– norms and societal expectations
– allows more reflection and freedom
Disengagement Theory, continued
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People can become more reflective about
their lives.
People can become less constrained by
social roles.
People become more discerning about
relationships, which can help them adjust
to increasing frequency of serious illness
and death among their peers.
Disengagement is not an automatic,
universal process for all people in late
adulthood.
Activity Theory: Continued Involvement
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According to ACTIVITY THEORY,
successful aging occurs when people
maintain the interests, activities, and
social interactions with which they were
involved during middle age.
Happiness and satisfaction with life are
assumed to spring from a high level of
involvement with the world.
Activity Theory, continued
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When it is no longer possible to work, successful
aging according to activity theory suggests that
replacement activities be found.
Being involved in any activity just to remain
active may not always contribute to happiness
and satisfaction.
Some people are happier when they can slow
down and only do those things that bring them
the greatest satisfaction.
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Neither theory provides a complete
picture of aging
• Which theory best explains successful
aging may depend on one's behavior
prior to late adulthood.
– Those active in youth better off with
activity
– Those that were uninvolved/socially
independent may be more satisfied
with disengagement
A General Model of Successful Aging…
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Good physical and mental health are
important in determining an elderly
person's sense of well-being.
Financial security and a sense of
autonomy and independence also give
one's later life a significant advantage.
A positive outlook on life helps people
view their old age more favorably.
• the selective optimization model of successful aging
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Developmental psychologists Baltes
and Baltes focus on the selective
optimization model
– Suggests that older people
overcome changes and losses in
old age according to the principle
of SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION,
where people concentrate on
particular skill areas to
compensate for losses in other
areas.
Selective Optimization with Compensation
According to this model, successful aging occurs when an
older adult focuses on his or her most important areas of
functioning & compensates for losses in other areas.
Daily Life in Late Adulthood:
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Living arrangements
Contrary to the stereotype, only 5 % of elderly
people end their lives in a nursing home.
2/3 of people over the age of 65 live with
other members of the family.
Most live with their spouse.
The adjustment to living with children can be
difficult.
African-Americans are more likely to live in
multigenerational families than Whites.
(Living arrangements in late adulthood, continued)
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10 % live in a CONTINUING-CARE
community, which typically offers an
environment in which all the residents
are of retirement age or older and need
various levels of care.
• Several types of nursing homes
exist.
 ADULT DAY-CARE FACILITIES are
where elderly individuals receive care
only during the day, but spend nights
and weekends in their own homes.
(Living arrangements in late adulthood,
continued)
• SKILLED-NURSING FACILITIES
provide full-time nursing care for
people who have chronic illnesses or
who are recovering from a temporary
medical condition.
– Only 1 % of those aged 64 to 74 are
in nursing homes.
– 25 percent of those over 85 are in
nursing homes.
 Fears of nursing homes can lead to
INSTITUTIONALISM, a psychological
state in which people develop apathy,
indifference, and a lack of caring about
themselves.
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Often brought about by a sense of learned
hopelessness, the belief that one has no
control over one's environment.
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Langer and Janis found that when given
simple choices over their lives, only 15 %
of the choice groups died within 18
months, compared to 30 % of the
comparison group.
Financial issues in late adulthood
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People who were well-off in young adulthood
remain so in late adulthood; those who were
poor remain poor in late adulthood.
– 12 % of the elderly over age 65 live below
the poverty line.
– Women are twice as likely to live in poverty
than men.
– 7 % of White people live below the poverty
line.
(Financial issues in late adulthood, continued)
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18 % of Hispanics live below the poverty line.
25 % of African-Americans live below the poverty
line.
• 82 % of African-American women are "poor" or
"near-poor".
The elderly must often live on a fixed income.
• social security
• pensions
• savings
 The elderly face rising health
costs.
• The average older person spends
20 % of his or her income on
health care costs.
• Nursing homes can cost $30,000
to $40,000 a year
Work and retirement in late adulthood
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When to retire is a major decision faced
by the majority of people in late
adulthood.
• The typical retirement age is moving
downward to age 60.
– Social security and pensions allow
people to retire earlier.
– A disincentive is built into Social
Security by having workers taxed at
higher rates on both social security
and earnings.
Work and retirement in late adulthood,
continued
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Many people continue to work full- or parttime for some part of late adulthood.
Mandatory retirement is illegal (since the
1970s) with the exception of certain public
safety jobs such as police, firefighters,
prison guards, and pilots.
The retirement decision is based on a
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number of factors.
Workers may be burned out after working
all their lives.
Jobs can be frustrating and tension-filled.
Health may decline.
Incentives are offered by their company to
retire early.
Desire to travel and see more of family
According to Atchley, people pass through
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stages in the process of retirement.
At first there is a honeymoon period, in which
former workers engage in a variety of activities,
such as travel, that were previously hindered
by full-time work.
Disenchantment may occur when retirees
conclude that retirement is not all they thought
it would be.
Reorientation is the stage where retirees
reconsider their options and become engaged
in new, more fulfilling activities
Atchley, stages in the process of retirement
continued
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A retirement routine stage occurs when retirees
come to grips with the realities of retirement and
feel fulfilled in this new phase of life.
The final stage is the process of termination
where the retiree either goes back to work or
health deteriorates so badly that the person can
no longer function independently.
Not everyone passes through each stage and the
sequence is not universal (table in text)
Gerontologists suggest several factors
related to a successful retirement
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Plan ahead financially.
Consider tapering off from work
gradually.
Explore your interests before you
retire.
Plan to volunteer your time.
Relationships: Old and New
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Marriage in the later years
– The proportion of men who are married over
the age of 65 is far greater than that of
women.
– 70 % of women outlive their husbands.
• The marriage gradient makes remarriage
easier for elderly men than for women.
• The vast majority of those still married report
they are satisfied with their spouse.
Living Patterns of Older Americans
Think about what these patterns might suggest about the
relative health & adjustment of men & women.
(Marriage in the later years, continued)
 For some, the stress of retirement or old age
changes the relationship
 2 % of divorces in the U. S. involve women
over 60
 Reasons for divorce at such a late stage are
varied. Women initiate it because:
• Husband may be abusive or alcoholic.
• The husband may have found a younger
woman.
• Men in retirement may suffer psychological
turmoil
(Marriage in the later years, continued)
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Divorce is harder on women than men.
Happiness and quality of life for women often
plummets since marriage may have been
central to their identity
5 % of the elderly never married and late
adulthood brings fewer changes to their lives.
– Report feeling less lonely than most people
of the same age
– Greater sense of independence
The Lasting Influence of Childhood: Evidence
from the Terman Study
• The Terman study of over 1,500 children of
high intelligence began in the 1920s
(“termites”)
• Still ongoing with subjects now in their 80s
being tested every 5 years.
• Longest-running longitudinal study in the
field of psychology
• Recent analyses have examined the impact
that several types of psychological stresses
have had on participants current lives—and
deaths
Terman study, continued
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Subjects whose parents divorced when they
were children faced a 1/3 greater risk of an
earlier death compared to those whose
parents remained married until the children
were at least 21
– There was greater stigma attached to
divorce then.
• Children of divorced parents had greater
marital instability themselves.
Terman study, continued
• Those who were prudent, truthful, and free
from vanity had a 30% lower chance of dying
in a particular year perhaps due to a greater
adherence to health habits.
• Childhood cheerfulness was related to a
shorter life perhaps because of carelessness
and a carefree attitude about health habits.
• Earlier death is related to occupational choice:
Men & women with more stereotypically male
jobs showed higher mortality rates!
Dealing with retirement: Too much togetherness?
 For many couples, retirement means that
relationships have to be refashioned.
• Couples spend more time together.
• Provides an opportunity for sharing
household chores.
• Men become more affiliative and less
competitive and women become more
assertive and autonomous.
Caring for an Aging Spouse
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Shifts in health mean that in late
adulthood men and women may have to
care for an ill spouse.
May provide closeness and a sense of
fulfillment.
The caregiver may not be in good
health either.
In most cases, the caregiver is the wife.
The Death of a Spouse:
Becoming Widowed
 Few events are more painful than the
death of a spouse.
• No longer part of a couple.
• Must deal with profound grief.
• No one to share life with.
• Social life often changes.
• Economic changes often occur
--According to Gloria Heinemann and
Patricia Evans, the process of adjusting to
widowhood occurs in three stages.
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In the first stage, preparation,
spouses prepare for the
eventual death of the partner.
• The second stage, grief and mourning, is
an immediate reaction to the death of a
spouse.
– May last years or months.
– Length depends on the degree of
support and personality factors.
• The last stage is adaptation, where the
widowed individual starts a new life.
• These stages do not apply to everyone
The Process of Adjustment to Widowhood
Heinemann &
Evans, 1990
Social networks of late adulthood
 Friendships play an important role in the
lives of those in late adulthood.
• Friendships are often more valued than
family because of the element of control:
we choose our friends.
• Friendships are more flexible than family.
• When a spouse dies, friends help fill the
gap.
• When a friend is defined as irreplaceable,
the death of that friend may be quite
difficult.
Social Activity in Late Adulthood
Friends & family play an important role in the social
activity of the elderly.
Social Support: The Significance of Others
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Friends provide SOCIAL SUPPORT, assistance
and comfort supplied by another person or a
network of caring, interested people.
Social support is important for successful
aging.
Provides an ear.
Can sympathize when they have been through
the same crises.
Can help furnish material support such as
solve problems, give a ride, or fix broken
things.
The Significance of Others, continued
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Dogs can be especially good at
providing social support.
Reciprocity, the expectation that
if someone provides something
positive to another person, a
return benefit ought to be
received, makes social support
effective and beneficial.
Family relationships: The Ties that Bind
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Connections with siblings, children,
grandchildren, and great-grandchildren
may provide an important source of
comfort to adults in the last years of
their lives.
Siblings are important because they
have shared a large portion of life with
you.
(Family relationships, continued)
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More important are children and
grandchildren.
Often provide support and care.
Parents often have a greater
developmental stake in close ties
because they see their children as
perpetuating their beliefs, values,
and standards.
Most parents and children remain close.
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75 % of children live within a 30-mile
drive to their parents.
Daughters tend to be in more frequent
contact than sons.
Mothers tend to be the recipient of
communication more than fathers.
Children may turn to their elderly
parents for advice, information, and
monetary help.
Grandchildren & Great-Grandchildren
 Not all grandparents take great pride in
their grandchildren.
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Grandmothers are more involved than
grandfathers.
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Many grandchildren express a greater
preference for their maternal
grandmother than for their paternal
grandmother.
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African-American grandparents are more
involved with their grandchildren than
are European-Americans.
(Grandchildren & Great-Grandchildren, continued)
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African-American grandfathers play a
larger role in their grandchildren's lives
than do white grandfathers.
Most grandparents do not have close
relationships to their great-grandchildren
although they enjoy having them.
May relate to the fact that greatgrandparents are very old.
May have so many great-grandchildren
that it is hard to keep track of them.
Elder Abuse: Relationships Gone Wrong
• Elder abuse (the physical and
psychological mistreatment or neglect of
elderly individuals) is all too common!
– Estimates: as many as 2 million people
above the age of 60 each year (may be low,
because unreported!)
– Expected to increase as the number of
elderly increase
(Elder Abuse, continued)
• Elder abuse is most often directed at family
members (particularly parents)
• Unhealthy and isolated most at risk; also, those
with dementia (esp. Alzheimers)
• Usually results due to economic, psychological,
and social pressure on caregivers required to give
high levels of care around the clock
• More efforts need to be made by society at
prevention
– Education
– Support agencies
• Remember to keep up with your
reading!