Español V
El 19 de febrero
2013
Para Empezar/Capítulo I
Realidades 3
Capítulo I
Realidades 3
Lectura Y ¡Adelante!
La Leyenda sigue........
Español V
El 19 de febrero
2013
Para Empezar/Capítulo I
Realidades 3
Capítulo I
META:
Preliminar- La aventura desastrosa Lean Uds. página 24 y página 25
otra vez para comprensión. ¿Comprendiste? Numeros 1 a 4...
1. REALIDADES
3 Capítulo I
Página 54 – página 57.
LECTURA
La Leyenda en ESPAÑOL
La Leyenda
Iztaccíhuatl y Popocatépetl
LA LEYENDA
El Iztaccíhuatl y el Popocatépetl
La vista que engalana a la ciudad más grande del
mundo: la Ciudad de México, está realzada por
la majestuosidad de dos de los volcanes más altos
del hemisferio, se trata del Popocatépetl y del
Iztaccíhuatl.
La presencia milenaria de estos enormes volcanes
ha sido de gran importancia en las diferentes
sociedades que los han admirado y venerado,
siendo fuente de inspiración de múltiples
leyendas sobre su origen y creación. Entre ellas
las más conocidas son dos que a continuación
relataremos.
Hace ya miles de años, cuando el Imperio
Azteca estaba en su esplendor y dominaba el
Valle de México, como práctica común sometían
a los pueblos vecinos, requiriéndoles un tributo
obligatorio. Fue entonces cuando el cacique de
los Tlaxcaltecas, acérrimos enemigos de los
Aztecas, cansado de esta terrible opresión,
decidió luchar por la libertad de su pueblo.
El cacique tenía una hija, llamada Iztaccíhuatl,
era la princesa más bella y depositó su amor en el
joven Popocatépetl, uno de los más apuestos
guerreros de su pueblo.
Ambos se profesaban un inmenso amor, por lo
que antes de partir a la guerra, Popocatépetl
pidió al cacique la mano de la princesa
Iztaccíhuatl. El padre accedió gustoso y
prometió recibirlo con una gran celebración para
darle la mano de su hija si regresaba victorioso de
la batalla.
El valiente guerrero aceptó, se preparó para
partir y guardó en su corazón la promesa de que
la princesa lo esperaría para consumar su amor.
Al poco tiempo, un rival de amores de
Popocatépetl, celoso del amor de ambos se
profesaban, le dijo a la princesa Iztaccíhuatl
que su amado había muerto durante el combate.
Abatida por la tristeza y sin saber que todo era
mentira, la princesa murió.
Tiempo después, Popocatépetl regresó
victorioso a su pueblo, con la esperanza de ver a
su amada. A su llegada, recibió la terrible noticia
sobre el fallecimiento de la princesa
Iztaccíhuatl.
Entristecido con la noticia, vagó por las calles
durante varios días y noches, hasta que decidió
hacer algo para honrar su amor y que el recuerdo
de la princesa permaneciera en la memoria de los
pueblos.
Mandó construir una gran tumba ante el Sol,
amontonando 10 cerros para formar una enorme
montaña.
Tomó entre sus brazos el cuerpo de su princesa,
lo llevó a la cima y lo recostó inerte sobre la gran
montaña. El joven guerrero le dio un beso
póstumo, tomó una antorcha humeante y se
arrodilló frente a su amada, para velar así, su
sueño eterno.
Desde aquel entonces permanecen juntos, uno
frente a otro. Con el tiempo la nieve cubrió sus
cuerpos, convirtiéndose en dos enormes volcanes
que seguirán así hasta el final del mundo.
La leyenda añade, que cuando el guerrero
Popocatépetl se acuerda de su amada, su
corazón que guarda el fuego de la pasión eterna,
tiembla y su antorcha echa humo. Por ello hasta
hoy en día, el volcán Popocatépetl continúa
arrojando fumarolas.
En cuanto al cobarde tlaxcalteca que mintió a
Iztaccíhuatl, presa del arrepentimiento por la
tragedia que desencadenó, fue a morir muy cerca
de su tierra. También se convirtió en montaña,
el Pico de Orizaba, otro de los volcanes de la
región, y desde muy lejos, vigila el sueño eterno
de los amantes que ya nunca se podrán separar.
Esta leyenda ha pasado de generación en
generación desde la época del Imperio Azteca,
cuyo florecimiento data del siglo XIV, y la
importancia que se les daba era evidente ya que
desde ese tiempo que les otorgó los nombres que
actualmente poseen.
Popocatépetl deriva su nombre del verbo
náhuatl “popoa” que significa “humo” y del
sustantivo “tepetl”, que quiere decir “cerro”, así
que su nombre significa literalmente “Cerro
que Humea”, debido a que desde esa época
emanaba ya, su tan característica fumarola.
Popularmente es conocido como “El Popo”,
aunque las poblaciones asentadas en sus faldas lo
conocen con el cariñoso mote de “Don Goyo”.
Iztaccíhuatl, el otro volcán, deriva su nombre
de los vocablos nahuátl “iztac”, que significa
“blanco” y “cíahuatl” que se interpreta
como“mujer”, por lo que su nombre se traduce
como “Mujer Blanca”. Actualmente es mejor
conocida como la “Mujer Dormida” debido a
su característico perfil que asemeja a una mujer
recostada con la cara hacia el cielo.
El Popocatépetl es un volcán activo con una
edad aproximada de 730,000 años. Tiene forma
cónica simétrica y una altura máxima de 5,450
metros sobre el nivel del mar, lo que lo coloca
como el segundo más alto de México.
Está unido en su parte norte con el Iztaccíhuatl,
mediante un paso montañoso conocido como
Paso de Cortés, nombre que hace referencia a
la ruta que siguió Hernán Cortés por ese lugar,
antes de llegar a la Gran Tenochtitlán.
El Iztaccíhuatl es un volcán extinto ubicado en
el centro de México. Es la tercera montaña más
alta del país con una altitud de 5,220 metros
sobre el nivel del mar y ambas se localizan en los
límites territoriales de los estados de México y
Puebla.
Actualmente ambos volcanes aun son gran
inspiración de expresiones artísticas y literarias,
que seguramente pasarán a la posteridad como
esta gran leyenda.
fin
Mini-lección 12-15
minutos en casa
Home Journal!
En el cuaderno en casa.
TAREA
Tarea esta noche- En Realidades 3
Lean Uds.
Para
Páginas 54 y 57
el
20
de febrero 2013
Realidades 3 Página 57 Preguntas de
numero 2.
Escriban Uds. las preguntas –
Y necesitan contestar con las
respuestas correctas.
¡BUENA SUERTE!
Realidades 3
Información en inglés para ayudar el estidiante
En sus conocimientos de la cultura de los Indígenas
De Meso-America.
Páginas 54 – 56
Realidades 3
Página 48 - Página 49
¡ADELANTE!
El Camino de Santiago
Teotihuacan
Country
Mexico
Type
Cultural
Criteria
I, II, III, IV, VI
Reference
414
UNESCO region
North America
Inscription history
Inscription
1987 (11th Session)
The view from the Pyramid of the Sun
Teotihuacan (pronounced /ˈtɛɔˌtiwɑˈkɑn/),[1] also written
Teotihuacán, is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico,
30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the
largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. The
name means "where man met the gods." Apart from the pyramidal
structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes,
the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals.
Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that
spread through Mesoamerica.[2]
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and
continued to be built until about 250 AD.[3] The city may have lasted
until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith,
perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the
largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps
125,000 or more,[3][4] placing it among the largest cities of the world in
this period.[5] Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the
Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the
largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was
even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate
this large population.[3] The civilization and cultural complex associated
with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of
a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well
documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence can be seen at
numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The Aztecs may have
been influenced by this city. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of
Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the
Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested
that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state.
The city and the archaeological site are located in what is now the San
Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, approximately 40
kilometres (25 mi) northeast of Mexico City. The site covers a total
surface area of 83 square kilometres (32 sq mi) and was designated a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is the most visited
archaeological site in Mexico.

Name
The name Teōtīhuacān was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec
centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been glossed as
"birthplace of the gods", reflecting Nahua creation myths that were said
to occur in Teotihuacan. Teotihuacān is a Nahuatl (Aztec) name
meaning "place where gods were born".[6] Nahuatl scholar Thelma D.
Sullivan interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the
gods."[7] This is because the Aztecs believed that the gods created the
universe at that site. The name is pronounced Nahuatl pronunciation:
[te.oːtiːˈwakaːn] in Nahuatl, with the accent on the syllable wa. By
normal Nahuatl orthographic conventions, a written accent would not
appear in that position. Both this pronunciation and Spanish Spanish
pronunciation: [te.otiwaˈkan] are used, and both spellings appear in this
article.
The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic
texts from the Maya region as puh, or "Place of Reeds".[8] This suggests
that the Maya of the Classic period understood Teotihuacan as a Place of
Reeds similar to other Postclassic Central Mexican settlements that took
the name Tollan, such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula.
This naming convention led to much confusion in the early 20th century,
as scholars debated whether Teotihuacan or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan
described by 16th–century chronicles. It now seems clear that Tollan
may be understood as a generic Nahua term applied to any large
settlement. In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, Tollan and other
language equivalents serve as a metaphor, linking the bundles of reeds
and rushes that formed part of the lacustrine environment of the Valley
of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city.[9]
Teotihuacan and other important Classic Era settlements
History
Origins and foundation
The early history of Teotihuacan is quite mysterious, and the origin of its
founders is unsure. For many years, archaeologists believed it was built
by the Toltec. This belief was based on colonial period texts, such as the
Florentine Codex, which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the
Nahuatl word "Toltec" generally means "craftsman of the highest level"
and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization centered at Tula,
Hidalgo. Since Toltec civilization flourished centuries after Teotihuacan,
the people could not have been the city's founders.
In the Late Formative time, a number of urban centers arose in central
Mexico. The most prominent of these appears to have been Cuicuilco,
on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco. Scholars have speculated that
the eruption of the Xitle volcano may have prompted a mass emigration
out of the central valley and into the Teotihuacan valley. These settlers
may have founded and/or accelerated the growth of Teotihuacan.
Other scholars have put forth the Totonac people as the founders of
Teotihuacan. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in
Teotihuacan immigrated from those areas influenced by the
Teotihuacano civilization, including the Zapotec, Mixtec and Maya
peoples.
The builders of Teotihuacan took advantage of the geography in the
Basin of Mexico. From the swampy ground, they constructed raised
beds, called chinampas. This allowed for the formation of channels, and
subsequently canoe traffic to transport food from farms around the city.
The earliest buildings at Teotihuacan date to about 200 BC. The largest
pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 AD.]
Zenith
The city reached its peak in 450 AD, when it was the center of a
powerful culture whose influence extended through much of the
Mesoamerican region. At its peak, the city covered over 30 km² (over
11½ square miles), and perhaps housed a population of 150,000 people,
with one estimate reaching as high as 250,000.[11] Various districts in the
city housed people from across the Teotihuacano region of influence,
which spread south as far as Guatemala. Notably absent from the city are
fortifications and military structures.
Platform along the Avenue of the Dead showing the talud-tablero
architectural style
Restored partion of Teotihucan architecture showing the typical
Mesoamerican use of red paint complemented on gold and jade
decoration upon marble and granite.
The nature of political and cultural interactions between Teotihuacan
and the centers of the Maya region (as well as elsewhere in
Mesoamerica) has been a long-standing and significant area for debate.
Substantial exchange and interaction occurred over the centuries from
the Terminal Preclassic to the Mid-Classic period. "Teotihuacan-inspired
ideologies" and motifs persisted at Maya centers into the Late Classic,
long after Teotihuacan itself had declined.[12] However, scholars debate
the extent and degree of Teotihuacano influence. Some believe that it
had direct and militaristic dominance; others that adoption of "foreign"
traits was part of a selective, conscious and bi-directional cultural
diffusion. New discoveries have suggested that Teotihuacan was not
much different in its interactions with other centers from the later
empires, such as the Toltec and Aztec.[13][14] It is believed that
Teotihuacan had a major influence on the Preclassic and Classic Maya,
most likely by conquering several Maya centers and regions, including
Tikal and the region of Peten, and influencing Maya culture.
Architectural styles prominent at Teotihuacan are found widely
dispersed at a number of distant Mesoamerican sites, which some
researchers have interpreted as evidence for Teotihuacan's far-reaching
interactions and political or militaristic dominance.[15] A style
particularly associated with Teotihuacan is known as talud-tablero, in
which an inwards-sloping external side of a structure (talud) is
surmounted by a rectangular panel (tablero). Variants of the generic
style are found in a number of Maya region sites, including Tikal,
Kaminaljuyu, Copan, Becan, and Oxkintok, and particularly in the Petén
Basin and the central Guatemalan highlands.[16] The talud-tablero style
pre-dates its earliest appearance at Teotihuacan in the Early Classic
period; it appears to have originated in the Tlaxcala-Puebla region
during the Preclassic.[17] Analyses have traced the development into
local variants of the talud-tablero style at sites such as Tikal, where its
use precedes the 5th-century appearance of iconographic motifs shared
with Teotihuacan. The talud-tablero style disseminated through
Mesoamerica generally from the end of the Preclassic period, and not
specifically, or only, via Teotihuacano influence. It is unclear how or
from where the style spread into the Maya region.[18]
The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers and
craftsmen. Teotihuacan is known for producing a great number of
obsidian artifacts. No ancient Teotihuacano non-ideographic texts are
known to exist (or known to have existed). Inscriptions from Maya cities
show that Teotihuacan nobility traveled to, and perhaps conquered, local
rulers as far away as Honduras. Maya inscriptions note an individual
nicknamed by scholars as "Spearthrower Owl", apparently ruler of
Teotihuacan, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as
rulers of Tikal and Uaxactun in Guatemala.
Teotihuacán-style mask, Classical period. Walters Art Museum.
Scholars have based interpretations about the culture at Teotihuacan on
archaeology, the murals that adorn the site (and others, like the Wagner
Murals, found in private collections), and hieroglyphic inscriptions made
by the Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacano conquerors.
The creation of murals, perhaps tens of thousands of murals, reached its
height between 450 and 650 AD. The painters' artistry was unrivaled in
Mesoamerica. It has been compared with those of painters in
Renaissance Florence, Italy.
Toltec
An expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style, from the American Museum of Natural History
collection.
The Toltec culture is an archaeological Mesoamerican culture that dominated a state
centered in Tula, in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca 800-1000 CE).
The later Aztec culture saw the Toltecs as their intellectual and cultural predecessors and
described Toltec culture emanating from Tōllān ['toːlːaːn] (Nahuatl for Tula) as the epitome of
civilization, indeed in the Nahuatl language the word "Tōltēcatl" [toːl'teːkat͡ɬ] (singular) or
"Tōltēcah" [toːl'teːkaʔ] (plural) came to take on the meaning "artisan". The Aztec oral and
pictographic tradition also described the history of the Toltec empire giving lists of rulers and
their exploits. Among modern scholars it is a matter of debate whether the Aztec narratives of
Toltec history should be given credence as descriptions of actual historical events. While all
scholars acknowledge that there is a large mythological part of the narrative some maintain that
by using a critical comparative method some level of historicity can be salvaged from the
sources, whereas others maintain that continued analysis of the narratives as sources of actual
history is futile and hinders access to actual knowledge of the culture of Tula, Hidalgo. Other
controversies relating to the Toltecs include how best to understand the reasons behind the
perceived similarities in architecture and iconography between the archaeological site of Tula
and the Mayan site of Chichén Itzá. No consensus has yet emerged about the degree or direction
of influence between these two sites.
Toltec pyramid at Tula, Hidalgo
Some archaeologists such as Richard Diehl, argue for the existence of a Toltec archaeological
horizon characterized by certain stylistic traits associated with Tula, Hidalgo and extending to
other cultures and polities in Mesoamerica. Traits associated with this horizon are: The MixtecaPuebla style of iconography, Tohil plumbate ceramic ware and Silho or X-Fine Orange Ware
ceramics.[1] The presence of stylistic traits associated with Tula in Chichén Itzá is also taken as
evidence for a Toltec horizon. Especially the nature of interaction between Tula and Chichén Itzá
has been controversial with Scholars arguing for either military conquest of Chichén Itzá by
Toltecs, Chichén Itzá establishing Tula as a colony or only loose connections between the two.
The existence of any meaning of the Mixteca-Puebla art style has also been questioned.[2]
A contrary viewpoint is argued in a 2003 study by Michael E. Smith and Lisa Montiel who
compare the archaeological record related to Tula Hidalgo to those of the polities centered in
Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan. They conclude that relative to the influence exerted in
Mesoamerica by Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan, Tula's influence on other cultures was negligible
and was probably not deserving of being defined as an empire, but more of a kingdom. While
Tula does have the urban complexity expected of an imperial capital its influence and dominance
was not very far reaching. Evidence for Tula's participance in extensive trade networks has been
uncovered, for example the remains of a large obsidian workshop.[3]
A map of the layout of the archaeological site of Tula, Hidalgo
Stucco relief at Tula, Hidalgo depicting Coyotes, Jaguars and Eagles feasting on human hearts.
Carved relief of a Jaguar at Tula, Hidalgo
Depiction of an anthropomorphic bird-snake deity, probably Quetzalcoatl at the Temple of
Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli at Tula, Hidalgo
View of the Columns of the Burned Palace at Tula Hidalgo, the second Ballcourt is in the background
Toltec warriors represented by the famous Atlantean figures in Tula.
The debate about the nature of the Toltec culture goes back to the late 19th century.
Mesoamericanist scholars such as Veitia, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Charles Etienne Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Francisco Clavigero all read the Aztec chronicles and believed them to be realistic
historic descriptions of pan-Mesoamerican empire based at Tula, Hidalgo. This historicist view
was first challenged by Daniel Garrison Brinton who argued that the "Toltecs" as described in
the Aztec sources were merely one of several Nahuatl speaking city-states in the postclassic
period, and not a particularly influential one at that. He attributed the Aztec view of the Toltecs
to the "tendency of the human mind to glorify the good old days", and the confounding of the
place of Tollan with the myth of the struggle between Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca.[4] Désiré
Charnay, the first archaeologist to work at Tula, Hidalgo, defended the historicist views based on
his impression of the Toltec capital, and was the first to note similarities in architectural styles
between Tula and Chichén Itza. This led him to posit the theory that Chichén Itzá had been
violently taken over by a Toltec military force under the leadership of Kukulcan.[5][6] Following
Charnay the term Toltec has since been associated with the influx of certain Central Mexican
cultural traits into the Mayan sphere of dominance that took place in the late classic and early
Postclassic periods; the Postclassic Mayan civilizations of Chichén Itzá, Mayapán and the
Guatemalan highlands have been referred to as "Toltecized" or "Mexicanized" Mayas.
The historicist school of thought persisted well in to the 20th century, represented in the works of
scholars such as David Carrasco, Miguel León Portilla, Nigel Davies and H. B. Nicholson which
all held the Toltecs to have been an actual ethnic group. This school of thought connected the
"Toltecs" to the archaeological site of Tula, which was taken to be the Tollan of Aztec myth.[7]
This tradition assumes that much of central Mexico was dominated by a "Toltec empire"
between the 10th and 12th century CE. The Aztecs referred to several Mexican citystates as
Tollan, "Place of Reeds", such as "Tollan Cholollan". Archaeologist Laurette Sejourné, followed
by the historian Enrique Florescano, have argued that the "original" Tollan was probably
Teotihuacán. Florescano adds that the Mayan sources refer to Chichén Itzá when talking about
the mythical place Zuyua (Tollan).
Many historicists such as H. B. Nicholson (2001 (1957)) and Nigel Davies (1977) were fully
aware that the Aztec chronicles were a mixture of mythical and historical accounts, this led them
to try to separate the two by applying a comparative approach to the varying Aztec narratives.
For example they seek to discern between the deity Quetzalcoatl and a Toltec ruler often referred
to as Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl
Chichimeca
Chichimeca Jonaz.
Map of Chichimeca nations around 1550
Chichimeca was the name that the Nahua peoples of
Mexico generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples
who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico and southwestern United
States, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The
name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when
referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of
northern Mexico. In modern times only one ethnic group is customarily
referred to as Chichimecs, namely the Chichimeca Jonaz, although lately
this usage is being changed for simply "Jonáz" or their own name for
themselves "Úza".
Overview and identity
The Chichimeca peoples were in fact many different groups with
varying ethnic and linguistic affiliations. As the Spaniards worked
towards consolidating the rule of New Spain over the Mexican
indigenous peoples during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the
"Chichimecan tribes" maintained a resistance. A number of ethnic
groups of the region allied against the Spanish, and the following
military colonization of northern Mexico has become known as the
"Chichimeca Wars
Many of the peoples called Chichimeca are virtually unknown today;
few descriptions mention them and they seem to have been absorbed
into mestizo culture or into other indigenous ethnic groups. For example,
virtually nothing is known about the peoples referred to as Guachichiles,
Caxcanes, Zacatecos, Tecuexes, or Guamares. Others like the Opata or
"Eudeve" are well described but extinct as a people.[full citation needed]
Other "Chichimec" peoples maintain a separate identity into the present
day, for example the Otomies, Chichimeca Jonaz, Coras, Huicholes,
Pames, Yaquis, Mayos, O'odham and the Tepehuánes.
Word origin
The Nahuatl name Chīchīmēcah (plural, pronounced [tʃiːtʃiːˈmeːkaʔ];
singular Chīchīmēcatl) means "inhabitants of Chichiman"; the
placename Chichiman itself means "Area of Milk". It is sometimes said
to be related to chichi "dog", but the i's in chichi are short while those in
Chīchīmēcah are long, a phonemic distinction in Nahuatl.[1]
The word "Chichimeca" was originally used by the Nahua to describe
their own prehistory as a nomadic hunter-gatherer people and used in
contrast to their later, more urban lifestyle, which they identified with
the term Toltecatl.[2] In modern Mexico, the word "Chichimeca" can
have pejorative connotations such as "primitive", "savage",
"uneducated" and "native".
without stopping to recover.[3] While las Casas recognized that the
Chichimecan tribes spoke different languages he saw their culture as
primarily uniform.
In 1590, the Franciscan priest Alonso Ponce commented that the
Chichimeca had no religion because they did not even worship idols
such as the other peoples – in his eyes another symptom of their
barbarous nature. The only somewhat nuanced description of the
Chichimeca is found in Bernardino de Sahagún's Historia general de las
cosas de Nueva España in which some Chichimec people such as the
Otomi were described as knowing agriculture, living in settled
communities, and having a religion devoted to the worship of the Moon.
The image of the Chichimecas as described by the early sources was
typical of the era; the natives were "savages" - accomplished at war and
hunting, but with no established society or morals, fighting even
amongst themselves. This description became even more prevalent over
the course of the Chichimec wars as justification for the war (the
Chichimec area was not entirely under Spanish control until 1721).[full
citation needed]
The first description of a modern objective ethnography of the peoples
inhabiting La Gran Chichimeca was done by Norwegian naturalist and
explorer Carl Sofus Lumholtz in 1890 when he traveled on muleback
through northwestern Mexico, meeting the indigenous peoples on
friendly terms. With his descriptions of the rich and different cultures of
the various "uncivilized" tribes, the picture of the uniform Chichimec
barbarians was changed – although in Mexican Spanish the word
"Chichimeca" remains connected to an image of "savagery".