Sport Class
FAST Ground School
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Sport Class Formation
Ground School Overview
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Part I:
Part II:
Part III:
Part IV:
Part V:
Basic Positions Defined
The Core Maneuvers & Procedures
Pitchout and Rejoins
Flying Extended Trail
Safety
PART I
BASIC CONCEPTS OF
CLOSE FORMATION
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The Formation Concept
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Challenging and Rewarding way to fly
Based on Trust and Confidence
Requires Discipline and Focus
Know “The Contract” and Your Responsibilities
“The Contract”
• Flight Lead
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Brief / Debrief
Fly stable platform
Control the flight maneuvers
Monitor flight
Terminate maneuvers if flight
safety is compromised
• Navigate
• Communicate
“The Contract”
• Wingman
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Attend/understand briefing
Always maintain visual contact
Immediately advise lead if you do lose sight
Don’t hit flight lead (or anyone else either)
Follow briefed formations/positions
Maintain listening watch
Advise lead if traffic is observed
Have exit plan ready
TAILORED TRAINING
NOTE
• Sport Class FAST Course is Tailored to
Reno Air Race OPS
• Training Charter:
• Familiarization with FAST Procedures
• View-ahead Brief
• Specific Procedures To Support Racing
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Formation Composition
2-Ship
• 2-Ship = 1 Element
• Basic building block
• #1, Lead
• #2, Wing
• Proximity
• Fingertip / Parade - Close
• Route – More Space
Note: “Parade” and “Fingertip” are
used interchangeably by many
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The Bearing Line vs.
Sightlines (Visual Reference Points)
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The Bearing Line
• Measured off of the nose of the
lead aircraft
• 45° for most aircraft
• Bearing line deviation
• Acute = forward of the bearing line
• Sucked = aft of the bearing line
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Sample Reference Points
Example, RVs:
RV Primary line of reference:
Outboard aileron hinge on spinner
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Secondary reference:
Tip of opposite
elevator behind the rudder
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• Primary reference provides
“bearing” and “step down”
• Secondary reference sets
spacing
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The Bearing Line
You won’t see your desired sightlines, i.o.w…
…your visual reference points will not be lined up
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Fingertip: “Finger Four”
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Formation Composition,
4-Ship
• 4-Ship – (2 elements)
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#1 Lead
#2 Wing
#3 Deputy Lead
#4 Wing
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Formation Composition:
Qualifications
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Flight Lead: Most experienced, Lead qualified.
#2: Wingman
#3: Deputy Lead (Lead Capable)
#4: Wingman
Do not put non-formation qualified pilot or
inexperienced pilot as Flight Lead
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4-Ship Configurations
Fingertip
Strong Left
Fingertip
Strong Right
Close Trail
Echelon
Diamond
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SCARA RULE ON
CONFIGURATION CHANGES
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Directed with Radio Calls
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Respond with Race Number
Hand Signals / Aircraft Signals
Exceptions = Pitchout Signal & Rejoin Signal
Executed from Fingertip/Finger Four position
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If in other than Fingertip:
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Lead will regroup in Fingertip then move to a new configuration
Lead may brief alternative for specific training events
One exception is Moving to Extended Trail
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Pitchout from Echelon to Ext Trail is Standard
Radio Call, 3 second interval, 4 calls in with separation
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Must be well-briefed by Lead
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PART II
The Core Formation
Events and Maneuvers
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PART II - Format
• Will discuss each maneuver in the normal flight
sequence
• Will cover
• Position References
• Radio Calls
– Visual/Aircraft Signals for Pitchouts and Rejoins)
• How to perform the maneuver
• How Sport Class Tailors the procedures (where applicable)
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Typical Training Profile
• Interval Takeoff
• Takeoff Rejoin
• Route Formation
• Parade/Fingertip Formation
• Wing-work (station-keeping)
• Crossunders
• Echelon turns
• Pitch-out & Rejoins
• Extended Trail
• RTB
• Recovery (overhead)
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Flight Briefing
• Critical to success of the flight
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Sets the tone for the whole flight
Lead will use the Sport Class Briefing Checklist
Brief the plan
Listen Up / Ask Questions
• No one mans up without clear picture of expectations
• Fly the plan
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Mission Briefing:
7 step briefing format: Manual Appendix C
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Time Hack
Establish Mission Objectives
Weather & Environmentals
Sequence of Events and standards to be used
Mission Specifics
• Details on how to achieve the training objectives.
• Contingencies
• Wrap Up & Final Questions
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Briefing Highlight:
Communications
• Always brief a communication plan
• Brief all frequencies if local flying
• Initial check-in after engine start is generally on CTAF
• During FAST (Ground for PRS)
• Frequency change protocol
• Use of “Go”: Acknowledge in sequence (“check out”)
• Use of “Push”: Switch without acknowledgment
• Lead will check flight in on new frequency in either case
• Sport Class Standard for FAST and PRS – Always use “GO”
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Engine Start
Hand Signals
• Be ready to start at briefed start time
• Ensure area is clear of all but crew
• Lead points skyward and rotates finger
• Wingmen repeat signal as heads-up to others
• Start when lead starts
• If everyone in flight is turning, fire-it-up!
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Check-in / Taxi
• Pull forward 5 feet when ready to taxi
• Check In on CTAF with Race Number (during FAST)
• Check in on Ground if Tower goes live Tuesday
• This will be standard during PRS
• Taxi In Sequence
• Spacing:
• In trail: 4 Ship Lengths
• Staggered: 2 Ship Lengths
• Tail Dragger: Extend & Weave as required. BRIEF THIS!
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Run-up
• Position Aircraft to line up heads
• May need to make “arc” in Run-up Area
• Conduct Run-up
• Check over aircraft to L & R
• Look to aircraft behind when ready
• Pass Thumbs up from Back to Front
• Now true for FAST and PRS
• Lead announces departure on CTAF and leads flight out
• If tower in operation:
• Lead will switch flight (“GO”) to Tower when thumbs up gets to him
• Sport Class Standard for FAST/PRS: No “auto switch” to Tower/Race Cntrl
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Line Up Options
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Tailored Line Up Procedures
• Mirrors PRS, but no Pace aircraft
• Lead rolls first when all wingmen on runway
• Roll and go OK if needed to accommodate traffic
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Interval Takeoff
• Lead call 60 kts
• Racers roll in order when previous racer is
1000 ft down the runway
• Last Aircraft call airborne
• Takeoff on Hot side, Abort to Cold side
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Hot side is away from stands (N side)
Cold side is turnoff side (S side, towards stands)
Control the Aircraft
Call the Abort
Call Cold
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Hot Side / Cold Side
N
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Revised March 2015
Rejoins After
Interval Takeoff
• Straight ahead or turning
• Which side?
• Tailored: ALL Rejoins in Sport Class FAST / PRS
will be “EVERYONE JOINS TO THE OUTSIDE”
• Rejoins in Part III of this Ground School
• Typical FAST
• #2 always joins on inside of turn
• #3 and #4 always join to outside
• Straight ahead – as briefed
• Standard is #2 on left, #3 and #4 on right
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BREAK
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Parade Station Keeping
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Find “the bearing line” & stay on it
Scan and maintain sightlines / visual references
Wings level with lead
Constant Corrections:
– Stick: slight finger pressure
– Throttle: “Controlled Aggression”
Don’t fixate – develop a scan
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• Primary reference provides
“bearing” and “step down”
• Secondary reference sets
spacing
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Example, RVs:
RV Primary line of reference:
Outboard aileron hinge on spinner
Secondary reference:
Tip of opposite
elevator behind the rudder
Station Keeping 101
• Establish & Maintain your Sightlines
• Make constant, small corrections
• Relax the “Death Grip” & “Wiggle Your Toes”
• Generally correct position in a logical sequence:
• Correct to the bearing line
• Correct vertical stack / stepdown
• Correct lateral spacing
• Eventually corrections are 3D…but remember the basics
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Station Keeping 101
• Recognition: Continuously and quickly correct
back to THE LINE
• Think: “small, timely corrections”
• Anticipate, anticipate, anticipate
• Use trim to your advantage
• Correct Hand Position on stick/throttle
• Oh yeah…Relax, Relax, Relax…Breath!
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Parade Turns
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For the Wingman, relative altitude and radius of
turn are changing when rolling into/out of turns
• Pitch, Bank and Power changes occur
• Maintain Parade Sight Picture
• Welded Wing
• Turns away
from Wing:
• Add power & increase pitch (climb)
• Turns toward Wing:
• Decrease power & decrease pitch (descend)
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Route Formation
2 – 4 ship widths…to 500 feet
“Abeam to no further aft than the bearing line”
Trend Note: When sent to route, move out, not aft
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Route Formation
• WHY ROUTE?
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Checklists and “Ops Checks”
Better lookout
Long Cross Country flights to relax
Holding airborne during airshows
• Signal
• Radio Call
• Tail Wag or Fishtail (side to side)
• Wing Pilots move out to maintain lateral
separation.
• 2-4 ship widths for checklists and frequency changes
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Flying Route
• Turns
• Wingman on the inside of the turn:
• Fly route welded wing references
• Wingman on the outside of the turn:
• Fly echelon references to avoid large power req
• (Stack Level in turn away)
• Do not “creep” back to fingertip
• Use good scan of lead when doing ops checks
• To avoid unrecognized closure
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Flying Route
Keep your 2-4 ship spacing until directed
otherwise, and don’t slide aft…
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Cross-Under
• Used to move aircraft from one side of
Lead to the other side
• Set up flight for pitch out maneuver
• Get Wingman out of sun
• Give Wingman a change on cross
country trip
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Cross-Under Signals
Sport Class Standard is RADIO CALL.
• Hand Signals
• Cross-under #2
• Single, raised fist
• Notify #3 first
• Cross-under #3 & #4
• Fist held up & pumped twice
• Aircraft Signals
• Wing Dip
• Dip Direction indicates which wingman moves
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Cross-Under Execution
Three part, primarily wings-level maneuver
1. Reduce power, move down and back
• Add small amount of power to stop rearward movement
2. Change heading to move across to opposite side
• SLIGHT aileron or rudder pressure to generate SLIGHT heading
change…NO LARGE BANK OR YAW (should be imperceptible)
• Maintain nose to tail distance while crossing
• SLIGHT aileron or rudder pressure to re-align heading and stop cross
3. Add power, move forward & up into position
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Cross-Under Execution
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Cross Under
DOWN and back
Controlled move ACROSS
UP and in
Avoid rounding the corners!
Echelon
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Echelon
• All aircraft on the same side of lead
• Used for:
• Pitch outs
• Traffic pattern
• Airshow Display
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Turning In Echelon
• Only turns away from wingmen in echelon
• All aircraft pivot on longitudinal axis
• Fuselage of Lead aircraft and aircraft
ahead split the horizon
• Do not unload in echelon
• Training: Up to 45 Degrees AOB
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Line Abreast Formation
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Flown in the Start Chute
Will be practiced in the working area
Flown on the 3/9 line (wingtip to wingtip)
Lateral Spacing (in/out) is challenging
Banking causes spacing difficulties
Tendency is to roll where you look (so don’t!)
Formation Recovery
Overhead Traffic Pattern
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Recovery Notes
• Simplify Radio Calls for the overhead
• VFR (GA) pattern aircraft are not familiar with overhead terminology
• Race 22 Flight, 10 West, entering straight in overhead 8
• Race 22 Flight, 3 mile initial, runway 8
• Race 22 Flight, overhead, left break 8
• Race 22 Base / Gear
• Race 22 Cold
• Trend Items:
• Do not report “Downwind” when setting up for the initial for overhead
– Use Bearing/Distance
» Race 22 Flight, 5 North, will enter straight in overhead 2-6
• “Pinching” Flight into a short initial
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Overhead Pattern
Execution
• Lead configures flight in echelon.
• Lead points skyward & rotates finger
• Lead holds up number of fingers to signify break interval in
seconds:
• Sport Class Standard is 5 seconds for Landing Pattern
• Only 2 Acknowledges (head nod, don’t pass signal)
• Creates 2000’ +/- interval on downwind
• Interval about 90º ahead in approach turn
• Know your interval and aircraft ahead of it
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Overhead Pattern
Execution
• The Break from Echelon:
• Lead pitches level over or beyond the numbers, as
required for spacing, & reduces power
• Wing Pilots pitch level at proper interval
• Lead drops gear on downwind abeam numbers
• Sooner if needed
• Wing Pilots drop gear when wings level on downwind
• Maintain spacing throughout pattern
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Landing Pattern
Execution
• Flaps at Vfe, or off the perch
• Wing Pilots match aircraft ahead
• Speed and configuration…aircraft type differences permitting
• Coming Off the Perch
• Continuous descending turn to final at briefed speed
• Use same turn point off perch
• Do not descend early on downwind
• Don’t chase lead down…forces entire pattern down
• Keep interval(s) in sight
• Adjust interval as needed with turn (lead/lag)
• 90º behind aircraft ahead, 2000’ spacing +/53
Landing Pattern
Hot-Cold Landing Procedure
• Lead lands long on hot side (or centerline of runway if
conditions warrant), then moves to cold side (ramp exit side)
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Each Wing Pilot does the same
CONTROL YOUR CLOSURE ON INTERVAL BEFORE GOING COLD
2000’ +/- spacing at threshold
<100 ft wide runway: No clear lane, increase interval
• RWY 18 @ RTS
• All aircraft roll to briefed exit to clear
• No Early Turnoffs
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Runway Exit Plan
A3
B
NO EARLY
TURNOFFS!
Recovery Notes
Co-existing with Local Traffic
• Simple, Clear Comms
• Predictable, Consistent Overhead Entries and Patterns
• Courtesy to slower and/or training aircraft
• When in doubt of traffic interval
• Ask for interval’s position
• Fly-through (“spin it”) and re-enter, if needed
• Heads up for variety of skill levels and experience
• Student Training common
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Taxi In/Shutdown
• Lead assembles flight clear of runway, or
• Individual Taxi OK – As briefed by lead
• CAUTION entering ramp!!
• Other Flights and their crew
• Do not taxi or coast across No Prop Turn Line
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Debrief
• Lead Pilot directs the debrief
• Wingmen get their shot when called
• Critique all aspects of flight, as required
• Examine the “what, why and how” of the sortie
• Wingmen should not leave debrief with unanswered
questions or concerns
• Remember: Egos checked at the door
• Goals: Safety, Mutual Support and Constant Improvement!
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Ops Checks and
Fuel Management
• “Ops Check”
• All in-flight checks performed in route formation
• Check fuel, fuel balance and engine parameters
• Report parameters as required.
• Fuel State in minutes
• Include G meter if applicable to flight
• Flight Lead radio call and acknowledgment:
• “Sport 5 flight Ops Check, 5: 55”
• “22: 45” “2: 55” “39: 50”
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Fuel Management
• “Bingo”
• Fuel state at which flight must terminate to
return with legal minimums or as briefed by
the Flight Lead
• Day VFR: 30 Minutes Reserve
• Generally briefed in ‘Time’ - fuel remaining
in minutes in dissimilar aircraft formations
• Example report: “Raven 3 is bingo plus 5”
• Do not overfly briefed bingo!
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BREAK
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PART III:
Pitch-Out and Rejoin
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The Formation
Pitch-Out
• Used to take spacing for
• Rejoin practice
• Extended Trail Maneuvering practice
• Overhead Pattern for landing
• Executed from echelon configuration
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The Formation
Pitch-Out
• Lead points skyward and rotates finger
• Lead holds up number of fingers to indicate break
interval in seconds
• Sport Class Standard – 3 seconds (for rejoin practice)
• Only #2 acknowledges (head nod – don’t pass signal)
• Lead “kisses” off
• Subsequent aircraft use same interval
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General Pitch-Out
Execution
• Level, 60° bank, 2G, 180° turn
• 3 second interval
• Match lead’s roll, G and flight path
• “4’s IN” Call
• Rejoins: Last aircraft calls “in” when wings-level, directly
behind preceding aircraft.
• At completion of 180° turn
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Rejoin Techniques
• Lead establishes a steady turn (20-25 deg nominal)
• Wingman turns inside to establish LEAD PURSUIT
• “Rejoin line” = 45 deg – vertical stab on outside wing
• Once on the rejoin line, modulate bank to fly up the line
• Expect to DECREASE bank upon reaching “the line”.
• Use angles, not throttle, to control closure (but manage
airspeed)
• If acute, DECREASE bank (giving you less lead/cutoff)
• If sucked, INCREASE bank (giving you more lead/cutoff)
Rejoin Techniques
• Stay LEVEL with lead – it’s an “in plane” maneuver
• Lead ON Horizon
• Too much smash (closure)? UNDER-RUN!
• Decrease AOB and G, lower nose
• Go below, behind and outside
• Stabilize, then slide back inside lead’s turn circle
• No big plays to catch overshoot!
• Never go belly up to lead!
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Managing Your Closure
• Bank angle controls your pursuit curve, and
your pursuit curve changes your closure
• Increase bank angle (or G) and pull lead pursuit =
Increased Closure
• Reduce bank angle (or G) and ease to lag pursuit =
Decreased Closure
• Airspeed control with Throttle as required
• Try to minimize throttle use
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Lead Pursuit
Nose AHEAD of the target
Closes the target QUICKLY
Pure Pursuit
Nose ON the target
Closes the target SLOWLY (if
inside the circle), then
Stagnates
No opening or closing
Lag Pursuit
Nose BEHIND the target
Opens from the target
Rejoin: Extended Trail
Rejoin: Establishing Cutoff
Rejoin: Proper Sight Picture
Rejoin: Acute
Rejoin: Sucked
Rejoin: Finish
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Fly Bearing Line until positioned to cross
• 2-3 ship-widths
Cross smoothly to outside
• Requires power as you move outside lead’s radius
• No big plays to outside!
• Ensure you have other wingmen in sight as you rejoin
Too much closure or “smash” – Under-run!
NEVER GO BELLY UP TO LEAD
Ease AOB and g
Pass below and behind lead and entire flight
Work back inside…back to rejoin line
• No big plays back to inside!
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PART IV
Extended Trail
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Exercise to manage nose to tail with lead/lag
• Use pursuit curves, not power to:
• Control Nose to Tail
• Control Closure
• Manage Aspect
• Fluid position
• 500’ - 1000’ Nose to Tail
• No closer than 200 feet or KIO/breakout
Evaluated using wingovers, max bank angle 90 degrees
Lead may brief and fly greater or lesser angles based on exp
Operational Applications:
• Rejoins and Landing Interval
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Entering (Separating to)
Extended Trail
• Entered from Echelon
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Flight Lead Brief procedures in detail
Use Voice call to initiate
Standard 3 second pitchout
“4’s In” Call
For Extended Trail: Last aircraft calls in when achieving
the desired interval and ready for maneuvering
Differs from PO/RJ in this respect
• (no need to wait for 180° of turn)
• Lead maneuvers on “4’s In” call
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Flying
Extended Trail
Lead
Pure
Lag
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Rejoin from
Extended Trail
• Flight Lead flies S&L for short period
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Large Wingrock
Turn for rejoin
Standard Rejoin Procedures
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PART V
SAFETY
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Collision Avoidance
Knock It Off
May-Day
Hard Deck
Safety Equipment
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Safety
Collision Avoidance
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Always keep lead in sight
Always closely monitor relative motion and closure
Always maintain separation
Always consider prop wash and wake turbulence
Never move ahead of your lead aircraft
Never go “belly up” to your lead aircraft
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Safety Calls
• “Knock It Off” (KIO)
• When a safety issue is developing
• Not applicable to immediate hazards to flight
• Impending collision, etc.
• In those cases, be directive first
• Who can call a KIO?
• What do you do if you hear it?
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Safety Calls
• “Knock It Off”
• Anyone can call KIO
•“Sport 5 Knock It Off, Altitude”
• Lead will acknowledge the call and all flight
members will mirror his/her call”
• “22 Knock It Off”…“39 Knock It Off”, etc.
• Clear your flight path and await lead’s
instructions – do not stop flying formation!
• Flight will ease maneuvering and
increase spacing at KIO call
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Safety Calls
• “Mayday”
• Engine Failure, Critical Systems Failure
Structural Failure, Midair
• After Mayday call - Lead will Knock It Off and take control
• No echoed KIO call for a Mayday
• Only essential comms
• Clear your flight path and await lead’s instructions
• Do not stop flying formation!
• Flight will ease maneuvering / increase spacing at KIO call
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Safety
The Hard Deck
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“Virtual” ground level
• Minimum maneuvering altitude
• Should be derived from current charts
• High enough to allow reasonable chance of
bailout or recovery from unusual
attitude/aerobatic maneuver as applicable
• Must be briefed on every formation mission
• Call KIO if penetrated
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Safety
Divert Fields
Beckwourth/Nervino
4900’ MSL
4600’ Runway
122.8
Reno INTL
4415’ MSL MSL
11000’ Runway
118.7
Truckee
5901’ MSL MSL
7000’ Runway
122.8
Silver Springs
4265’ MSL
6000’ Runway
122.9
Carson City
4705’ MSL
6100’ Runway
123.0
Dayton Valley
4414’ MSL
5300’ Runway
122.9
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Safety Equipment
Reminder
• Helmet (required for PRS)
• Gloves
• Nomex flight suit
• Intercom system
• Ability to transmit from rear/right seat
• Fire Extinguisher
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Questions? – Let’s Fly!
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