http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
Intro
F.W. Taylor
Scientific
Management
- Evolved in the late 19th & early 20th century
- Perspective emerges from the industrial revolution & centers on
theories of efficiency
- Towards the end of 19th century, factory production became pervasive,
time for large scale organizations & production
- People have been looking ways to increase productivity
- During this period, work was performed by skilled craftsmen who had
learned their jobs in lengthy apprenticeships
- In 1911, Frederick Winslow Taylor published his work, The Principles of
Scientific Management
- With a background in Mechanical Engineering, Taylor had emphasized
on ‘Efficiency’
- Advanced his career at a US steel manufacturer, designed workplace
experiments
- Explained how application of scientific method to the management of
workers could improve productivity
- Converted skilled crafts into a series of simplified jobs
1
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
Soldiering
Taylor observed the phenomena of workers purposely operating below
their capacity;
- Universally held belief among workers that of they became more
productive, fewer of them would be needed & jobs would be
eliminated
- Non- incentive wage systems, encouraged lower productivity.
Employee received the same wages irrespective of how much they
produced
- A fear that faster pace would become the new standard . If employees
were paid by the quantity they produce, they fear that management
would decrease their per- unit pay, if the quantity increases
- Workers relied on rule of thumb method rather than on optimal work
To counter soldiering & to improve efficiency, Taylor began to conduct
experiments to determine the best level of performance for certain jobs,
and what was necessary to achieve this performance.
2
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
Time Studies/
Time & Motion
Studies
Pig Iron
- Taylor argued that most basic task could be planned in a way that
dramatically could improve productivity
- Initiative & incentive method offered an incentive to increase
productivity but placed the responsibility on the worker to figure out
how to do it
- Taylor performed experiments that he called ‘Time Studies’
If workers were moving 12.5 tons of pig iron everyday, they could be
incentivized to move 47.5 tons per day but that would depend on their
own wits. They would get exhausted in few hours & fail to reach the goal
- Conducting experiments to determine the amount of resting that was
necessary, using stop watch
- Worker’s managers could determine the optimal timing of lifting &
resting, so that the worker could move 47.5 tons per day
Not all workers were physically capable of moving 47.5 tons of pig iron
per day. Only 1/8th of workers had the physical capabilities to do the
same.
This example suggests that ‘workers should be selected according to how
well they are suited for a particular job’.
3
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
Science of
Shoveling
The optimal weight that a worker should shovel is 21 pounds.
- The shovel should be sized to a weight of 21 pounds, so that workers
could easily lift the iron
- Factory provided the workers with optimal shovels
The result was a three fold increase in productivity & workers were
rewarded with pay increases.
Taylor believed in ‘A fair Day’s Pay for a Fair Day’s Work’
Taylor’s
Principles of
Scientific
Management
After several years of experiments, Taylor proposed four principles of
Scientific Management;
1. Replace rule of thumb method with methods based on a scientific
study of tasks
2. Scientifically select, train & develop each worker rather than
passively leaving them to train themselves
3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically
developed methods are being followed
4. Divide work nearly equally between managers & workers, so that the
managers apply scientific management principles to planning the
work & the workers actually perform the tasks
4
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
Critiques of
Scientific
Management
- Increased the monotony of work
- Core job dimensions of;
- Skill variety
- Task identity
- Task significance
- Autonomy
- Feedback
All were missing from the picture of scientific management
- Use of stop watches were not accepted by workers in many US
factories. It led to a strike in one of the factories where ‘Taylorism’ was
practiced.
- Complaints were registered that Scientific Management was
dehumanizing
5
Classical Schools of Thought: Gantt Chart
What
- Is a bar chart
- Developed by Henry Gantt
- In the year 1910s
- Illustrates project schedule (start date, finish date, activities
involved in the project)
- Measures planned and completed work along each stage of
production, based on time instead of quantity, volume, or weight
How
Schedule for Blood Donation Camp in the Campus on December 25, 2014
Dec-14
S.No
Activity
I week
1
Venue
2
Logistics
3
Marketing
4
Doctors
5
Drinking Water Area
6
Ambulance
II week
III week
IV week
6
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/more-subjects/principles-of-management/the-evolution-of-management-thought/classical-schools-of-management
Classical Schools of Thought: Bureaucratic Management
Background
Bureaucracy
- Max Weber disliked that many European organizations were managed
on a “personal” family‐like basis and that employees were loyal to
individual supervisors rather than to the organization
- He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally having
a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were followed
1. A well‐defined hierarchy:
- Structured positions
- Higher positions to supervise & control lower positions
- Clear chain of command
2. Division of labor and specialization:
- Specialized roles & responsibilities
- Expertise in any particular task
3. Rules and regulations:
- SOP (Standard Operating Procedures)
4. Impersonal relationships between managers and employees:
- No favoritism and personal prejudice to influence decisions making
5. Competence:
- Competence should be the basis for all decisions made in hiring, job
assignments, and promotions
6. Records:
- Maintenance of files regarding all activities
7
http://danawilliams2.tripod.com/authority.html
Classical Schools of Thought: Bureaucratic Management
Traditional Authority
- Ability & right to rule is passed down
- Tends to be irrational and inconsistent
- Maintains Status Quo
Forms of
Authority
Charismatic Authority
- A leader whose mission and vision inspire others
- A head of a new social movement
- Example: Martin Luther King, Mahatma Gandhi
Legal rational Authority
- Empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law
- Obedience is given to a set of rational principles
- Example: Bureaucracy, Modern States
8
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htm
https://managementinnovations.wordpress.com/2008/12/04/henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management/
Classical Schools of Thought: Administrative Management
Background
Fayol's 14
Principles of
Management
- Henri Fayol was born in Istanbul in 1841
- When he was 19, he began working as an engineer at a large mining
company in France.
- He eventually became the director, at a time when the mining
company employed more than 1,000 people
- Fayol developed 14 most important principles of management
Essentially, these explained how managers should organize and interact
with staff
- Fayol's "14 Principles" was one of the earliest theories of management
to be created
1. Division of Work – When employees are specialized, output can
increase because they become increasingly skilled and efficient
2. Authority – Managers must have the authority to give orders, but
they must also keep in mind that with authority comes responsibility
3. Discipline – Discipline must be upheld in organizations, but methods
for doing so can vary. Penalties should be applied, if not followed.
4. Unity of Command – Employees should have only one direct
supervisor
5. Unity of Direction – Teams with the same objective should be
working under the direction of one manager, using one plan. This
9
will ensure that action is properly coordinated
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Administrative Management
Fayol's 14
Principles of
Management
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest – The
interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more
important than those of the group. This includes managers
7. Remuneration – Employee satisfaction depends on fair
remuneration for everyone. This includes financial and non-financial
compensation
8. Centralization – This principle refers to how close employees are to
the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an
appropriate balance
9. Scalar Chain – Employees should be aware of where they stand in
the organization's hierarchy, or chain of command
10. Order – The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for
employees. Everything should have its place
11. Equity – Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both
maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where
appropriate
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel – Managers should strive to
minimize employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority
13. Initiative – Employees should be given the necessary level of
freedom to create and carry out plans
14. Esprit de Corps – Organizations should strive to promote team 10
spirit
and unity
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayolism
Classical Schools of Thought: Administrative Management
Fayol's 6
Functions of
Management
1. Forecasting
2. Planning: What, When, Why, Where, Who, How
3. Organizing: raw materials, tools, capital and human resources.
Identifying responsibilities, grouping them into departments or
divisions, and specifying organizational relationships
4. Commanding: Managers need to implement the plan. They must
have an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of their
personnel. Leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the
organization requires proper allocation of resources and an effective
support system.
5. Coordinating: to harmonize all the activities to facilitate
organizational success. Communication is the prime coordinating
mechanism
6. Controlling: Monitoring function that evaluates quality in all areas .
Ensuring high-quality performance and satisfactory results while
maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment
11
http://education-portal.com/academy/topic/behavioral-school-of-management-theory.html
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/neo-classical-theory-of-management-the-human-relations-approach.html
https://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-theory-3/behavioral-perspectives-30/the-human-side-hawthorne-170-8381/
Behavioral Perspective: Human Relations Approach: Elton Mayo
Background
Hawthorne
Studies:
Conclusions
- In the early 1920s, a shift began towards human side & social needs of
the employees
- Neo classical theories answered questions related to the best way to
motivate, structure, and support employees within the organization
- Classical theories created an attitude among managers that employees
were nothing more than an accessory to a machine
- It was unrealistic to expect standardization among emotional beings
1. Workers' attitudes are associated with productivity
2. Workplace is a social system and informal group’s influence could
exert a powerful effect on individual behavior
3. Style of supervision is an important factor in increasing workers' job
satisfaction
- Began in 1924 till 1930s with the workers at the Hawthorne plant of
the Western Electric Company
- Elton Mayo & Roethlisberger are the main names associated with it
-The studies originally looked into whether workers were more
responsive and worked more efficiently under certain environmental
conditions, such as improved lighting
- Studies found that workers were more responsive to social factors;
such as people they worked with in a team, the amount of interest their
12
managers had in their work
http://www.business.com/management/management-theory-of-mary-parker-follett/
http://womenshistory.about.com/od/business/p/m_p_follett.htm
Behavioral Perspective: Mary Parker Follett
Mary Parker
Follett
- Power: “Power Over” & “Power With”, differentiate coercive power
from participative decision making
- True leaders create group power, rather than expressing personal
power
- Conflict resolution through Integration
13
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/chester-barnard-informal-organizations-and-acceptance-theory.html
Behavioral Perspective: Chester Barnard
Acceptance
Theory to
Authority
- Manager's authority rests on workers' acceptance of his right to give
orders and to expect compliance
- There are a reasons for this expectation:
• Workers will be rewarded for compliance
• There will be discipline for non-compliance
• Workers respect the manager for his experience
-Effective & Efficient Organizations: When organizations meet their
goals on time, its effective. Efficient means the degree to which the
organization can satisfy the motives of its employees
Informal &
Formal
Organizations
- Formal organizations operate under a set of rules and policies
designed to carry out the organizational purpose
- Organizations are made up of groups of individual workers. Naturally,
these individual workers form informal social groups that become the
informal organization. The informal organization exists within a larger
formal organization
14
http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
Behavioral Perspective: Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow
Reputation: how
other people see
them, fish for
compliments
Esteem needs- achievement, mastery,
independence, status, dominance, prestige, selfrespect, respect from others
Social Needs/ Love and belongingness needsfriendship, intimacy, affection and love, from work
group, family, friends, romantic relationships
Safety needs- protection from elements, security,
order, law, stability, freedom from fear
Biological and Physiological needs- air, food, drink,
shelter, warmth, sleep
Basic level of survival
What we think of ourselves,
Self confidence we have,
Internal environment, 50%
of people are satisfying our
internal needs
Self-Actualization needs- realizing personal
potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth
and peak experiences
15
http://www.businessballs.com/mcgregor.htm
http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_03_mcgregor.html
Behavioral Perspective: Theory X-Y: Douglas McGregor
Theory X
Assumptions
- The average person dislikes work and will avoid it as much as one could
- Most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work
towards organizational objectives
-The average people prefers to be directed; dislikes responsibility
- Wants security above all else
- Theory X managers, do not give their staff the opportunity to explore
so that they behave in an expected fashion
Theory Y
Assumptions
- Control & punishments are not the only ways to make people work
- Man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the
organization
- If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the
organization
- The average man learns under proper conditions, to accept & carry out
responsibility
- Imagination & creativity can be used to solve large number of problems
16
http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/systheor.html
Systems Theory
What
- Systems theory (new way of conceptualizing and studying
organizations) was proposed in the 1940's by the biologist Ludwig von
Bertalanffy
- Real systems are open to, and interact with, their environments
- There happens continual evolution
- Rather than reducing an entity (e.g. the human body) to the properties
of its parts
- Systems theory focuses on the arrangement of and relations between
the parts which connect them into a whole (holism)
- Systems concepts include: system-environment boundary, input,
output, process, state, hierarchy, goal-directedness, and information
Structure of an Organization as Per Systems Theory
Input
Explanation
Output
Resources(Goods
,Funds, People)
Services(Financial
consulting, Legal)
Process
Systems return
product to the
environment
- Synergy
- Interdependence
- Interconnection
- within the org.
- B/w the org.- env.
- Org. as organism
Feedback
Environment
Positive
Negative
17
Systems Theory
Properties of
System
Environmental
Interaction
- Open system’s
interaction with the
outside environment
- Parts that make up a
system are interrelated
Differentiation
Classical Theory
- Worker as a tool for
improving
efficiency
- Not applicable to
tasks that are not
simple &
homogeneous
- Increased LaborManagement conflict
& strengthening of
labor union
Synergy
Entropy
- When all
- The tendency for
organizational
subsystems work
together making the
whole greater than
the sum of it’s parts
systems to decay over
time
Humanistic Theory
- Manipulating people
to comply with
management
directives, instead of
understanding
human behavior &
mankind desirable
changes in the org.
- Overemphasized
human needs, & not
on org. tasks &
process
Systems Theory
- Provides an
analytical framework
for viewing an org. in
general (organism)
- Recognizes;
1. Interdependence
of personnel
2. Impact of
environment on
organizational
structure and
function
3. Affect of outside
stakeholders 18
on
the organization
Systems Theory
Characteristics
of Organization
- Role of Communication:
- Inter communication: exchange information b/w organization &
environment
- Intra communication: exchange information within various systems
- Types of Subsystems:
- Production (technical) Subsystems - concerned with outputs, eg;
assembly line
- Supportive Subsystems - ensure production inputs are available, eg;
import raw material, Procurement
- Maintenance Subsystems - social relations in the system, eg; HR
- Adaptive Subsystems - monitor the environment and generate
responses, eg; PR
- Managerial Subsystems - coordinate, adjust, control, and direct
subsystems, eg; Senior Management
- Boundaries:
- Physical Boundary - prevents access (security system)
- Linguistic Boundary - specialized language (jargon)
- Systemic Boundary - rules that regulate interaction (titles)
- Psychological Boundary - restricts communication (stereotypes,
prejudices)
19
Contingency Approach
Contingency
Approach
- Research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s focused on situational
factors that affected the appropriate structure of organizations and the
appropriate leadership styles for different situations
- There is no one best way to manage
- To be effective, planning, organizing, leading, and controlling must be
tailored to the particular circumstances faced by an organization
- Stable Environment: Centralization, formalization, standardization, and
specialization
- Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch- suggest that organizational units
operating in differing environments develop different internal unit
characteristics, and that the greater the internal differences, the
greater the need for coordination between units
- Joan Woodward- financially successful manufacturing organizations
with different types of work technologies;
1. unit or small batch
2. large-batch or mass-production
3. continuous-process
differed in the number of management levels, span of management,
and the degree of worker specialization
20
Contingency Approach
Contingency
Approach
Contingency
Perspective &
Leadership
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Comp-De/Contingency-Approach-to-Management.html
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fiedler.htm
- Organizational Size- Small organizations can behave informally while
larger organizations tend to become more formalized.
Small Organization: owner of a may directly control most things
Large organizations: complex and indirect control mechanisms,
specialized staff, units, and jobs.
- Fred Fiedler, in the 1960s and 1970s, was an early pioneer in this area
- Task-oriented or relationship oriented leadership
- Fiedler believed that leadership style is fixed, and it can be measured
using a scale he developed called Least-Preferred Co-Worker
- The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed/
most enjoyed working with
The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more
negatively, resulting in a lower score. He said that low LPCs are very
effective at completing tasks. They're quick to organize a group to get
tasks and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority.
However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more
positively, giving them a higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High
LPCs focus more on personal connections, and they're good at avoiding
and managing conflict. They're better able to make complex decisions.
21
http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/total-quality-management/overview/overview.html
Total Quality Management
Contingency
Approach
Elements of
TQM
- Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management approach that
originated in the 1950s & gained momentum in 1980s
- All members of an organization participate in improving processes,
products, services, and the culture in which they work
- ‘Customer Satisfaction’ is the end result
- Customer Satisfaction
- Employee Involvement: Styles of Leadership, Employee relating to co.
vision & mission, flow of communication, proper environment to work,
self managed work teams
- Process centered
- Integrated systems: horizontal processes interconnected. Eg; HR
process of ‘PMS’- Individual Goal Setting – Manager Goal Setting – Mid
year review – Departmental Discussion – Calibration Meeting (HR) –
Final review
- Strategic and systematic approach: To achieving an organization’s
vision, mission, and goals, the formulation of a strategic plan that
integrates quality as a core component
- Continual Improvement
- Fact based decision making
- Communication
22
https://www.deming.org/theman/theories/fourteenpoints
Total Quality Management
14 Principles of
TQM By W.
Edward Deming
- Create loyalty of purpose toward improvement of product and
service, with the aim to become competitive and to stay in business,
and to provide jobs
- Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western
management must awaken to the challenge, must learn their
responsibilities, and take on leadership for change
- Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the
need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product
- Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a long term
relationship of loyalty & trust
- Improve constantly the system of production & service to improve
quality & productivity
- Institute training on the job
- Institute Leadership. The aim of leadership should be to help people &
gadgets to do a better job
- Drive out fear. So that everyone can work effectively for the company
- Break down barriers between department. People in research, design,
production must work as a team, to foresee problems
- Eliminate work standards (quotas)/ Eliminate management by
objectives (numbers, numerical goals). Substitute leadership for both
23
https://www.deming.org/theman/theories/fourteenpoints
Total Quality Management
14 Principles of
TQM By W.
Edward Deming
- The responsibility of workers must be changed from number to quality
- Institute a vigorous program of education & self improvement
- Transformation is everybody’s job
24
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/theory-z.htm
Theory Z: William Ouchi
Background
Theory Z
- Back in the '70s and '80s, Japanese organizations were arguably the
most productive and efficient in the world
- The secret to their success was how they were managing their people –
Japanese employees were engaged, empowered, and highly productive
- Ouchi first wrote about Theory Z in his 1981 book, "Theory Z: How
American Management Can Meet the Japanese Challenge." He created
the theory after conducting research designed to help American
companies compete with Japanese businesses
- A Strong Company Philosophy and Culture: The company philosophy
and culture needs to be understood and embodied by all employees,
and employees need to believe in the work they're doing
- Long-Term Staff Development and Employment: The organization and
management team has measures and programs in place to develop
employees. Employment is usually long-term, and promotion is steady
and measured. This leads to loyalty from team members.
- Consensus in Decisions: Employees are encouraged and expected to
take part in organizational decisions.
- Generalist Employees: Because employees have a greater
responsibility in making decisions, and understand all aspects of the
organization, they should be "generalists." However, employees are still
expected to have specialized career responsibilities.
25
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/theory-z.htm
Theory Z: William Ouchi
Theory Z
- Concern for the Happiness and Well-Being of Workers: The
organization shows sincere concern for the health and happiness of its
employees, and for their families. It puts measures and programs in
place to help foster this happiness and well-being
- Informal Control with Formalized Measures: Employees are
empowered to perform tasks the way they see fit, and management is
quite "hands off." However, there should be formalized measures in
place to assess work quality and performance
- Individual Responsibility: The organization recognizes the
contributions of individuals, but always within the context of the team
as a whole
26
http://www.change-management-coach.com/kurt_lewin.html
Unfreeze – Change – Free: Kurt Lewin
Kurt Lewin
Details
- Kurt Lewin emigrated from Germany to America during the 1930's
- Recognized as the "founder of social psychology”
- Highlights his interest in the human aspect of change, factors that
influence people to change
Stage 1: Unfreeze
- This stage is about getting ready to change
- It involves getting to a point of understanding that change is necessary
- Force Field Analysis: Change is all about weighing up the 'pro's' and
'con's' and deciding if the 'pro's' outnumber the 'con's' before you take
any action
- If there are more ‘cons’ to change than the motivation to change would
be low
- This first 'Unfreezing' stage involves moving ourselves, or a
department, or an entire business towards motivation for change
Stage 2: Change
- Change is not an event but a process (transition- the inner movement
or journey we make in reaction to a change)
- People are 'unfrozen' and moving towards a new way of being
- Hardest stage, as people are unsure or fearful
- Support is really important in the form of training, coaching, and
expecting mistakes as part of the process
27
- Communication is an important aspect to keep people together
http://www.change-management-coach.com/kurt_lewin.html
Unfreeze – Change – Free: Kurt Lewin
Details
Stage 3: freeze
- This stage is about establishing stability once the changes have been
made
- The changes are accepted and become the new norm
- People form new relationships and become comfortable with their
routines
28
http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2010/06/management-by-objectives-mbo-peter.html
MBO: Peter Drucker
MBO
- The genesis of MBO is attributed to Peter Drucker who has explained it
in his book 'The Practice of Management‘ in 1954
- Objectives should not be imposed on subordinates but should be
decided collectively by a concerned with the management
- It is a demanding and rewarding style of management
- MBO is based on the assumption that people perform better when
they know what is expected of them and can relate their personal goals
to organizational objectives
- It is a result-oriented philosophy and offers many advantages such as
employee motivation, high morale, effective and purposeful leadership
and clear objectives before all concerned persons
- MBO involves the establishment of goals by managers and their
subordinates acting together, specifying responsibilities and assigning
authority for achieving the goals and finally constant monitoring of
performance
29
http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html
Cognitive Dissonance: Leon Festinger
Details
- Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have
an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid
disharmony (or dissonance)
- According to Festinger, we hold many cognitions about the world and
ourselves; when they clash, a discrepancy is evoked, resulting in a state
of tension known as cognitive dissonance
- The situation can be divided into three main areas:
- Forced compliance behavior
- Decision-making
- Effort
- Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways:
- Change one or more of the attitudes
- Acquire new information
- Reduce the importance of the cognitions
30
https://hbr.org/1973/05/how-to-choose-a-leadership-pattern
Leadership Pattern: Robert Tannenbaum & Warren H. Schmidt
Details
- How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” describes ”democratic
management” and devises a leadership continuum ranging from
authoritarian to democratic (1958)
Boss centered Leadership
Subordinate centered Leadership
Use of authority by
the manager
Manager
makes
decision &
announces
it
Manager
sells
discussion
Area of freedom for
subordinates
Manager
presents
decision &
invites
questions
Manager
presents
tentative
decisions
subject to
change
Manager
presents
problem,
gets
suggestion
s, makes
decision
Manager
defines
limits, asks
group to
make
decision
Manager
permits
subordinat
es to
function
within
limits
defined by
superior
31
Transactional Analysis: Eric Berne
Transactional
Analysis
Ego State
Parent
Child
Adult
http://www.businessballs.com/transact.htm
http://www.ericberne.com/transactional-analysis/
- Eric Berne, in his book Games People Play (1964), identified three ego
states for studying the psychology of human relationships
-Transactional Analysis is the method for studying interactions between
individuals
- A consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a
corresponding consistent pattern of behavior
- Berne defined the three ego states as: Parent, Adult, and Child
- Represents a massive collection of recordings in the brain of external events
- The majority of the external events experienced by a child are actions of the
parent, the ego state was appropriately called Parent
- Parent is our 'Taught' concept of life
- Our internal reaction and feelings to external events
- Our internal reaction and feelings to external events
- Child is our 'Felt' concept of life
- Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves
- The Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate Child and
Parental data
- Adult is our 'Thought' concept of life
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Organization
• http://www.uk.sagepub.com/upmdata/27411_7.pdf
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