Grammar Backgrounder
English 102: Writing with Power and Persuasion
This overview of grammar, punctuation and style will help you write with greater clarity, accuracy and
power. You should be fully fluent with all of this material by the end of the course. To review the
PowerPoint effectively
• Please put the presentation into slide show mode (The numerous animations and many slides will
look like gibberish in in normal view)
• Left click your mouse to advance the slides. After you advance the slide, look out for the instruction
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“Please Left Click” to launch animations.
Table of Contents (Main Sections)
1. The Sentence (LINK)
The sentence is the key component of all writing. Words are separate,
isolated entities until they are placed in understandable order in sentences,
which give logic and sense to all writing. Understanding how to write great
sentences is the basis of excellent writing.
2. Punctuation (LINK)
Good punctuation is necessary for clear communication. This section focuses
on the most common issue in punctuation. We focus on the comma, which
enables use to clarify what we are trying to say and eliminate confusion and
misunderstanding.
3. Common Errors (LINK)
Whether it is confusing words that sound alike (homonyms), such “to” and
“too” or “they’re,” “their” and “there”) or pronouns that do not have a clear
antecedent (the original word that they are intended to represent), there are
common mistakes that many writers make repeatedly. This section focuses
on avoiding committing bedeviling errors.
2
Table of Contents (Main Sections)
4. Proof, Proof, Proof (LINK)
Solid proofreading is the best tool for avoiding mistakes, typographical
errors, and embarrassment. In this section, you can find tips for becoming a
successful proofreader and easily enhance the quality of your writing.
5. Short, Sweet and Precise (LINK)
Writers should strive to be as precise, understandable, and to the point as
possible to ensure accuracy, brevity, and clarity. This section examines how
to avoid unnecessary words, redundancy, and colloquial terms and slang that
are inappropriate in a formal paper. It also looks at active and passive voice.
You should use active voice, because it is more direct, dynamic, and concise.
6. Resources for Writers (LINK)
A selection of books, websites and other resources that will enable you to up
your game and become a better writer.
7. Glossary (LINK)
The glossary is a place to refresh your memory about the meaning of some
key words. Many of the words in the text are hyperlinked to this glossary,
and each word is hyperlinked back to the page where it is first used.
3
Table of Contents
1.
The Sentence
Slide 5: The Sentence: The Key to Grammar LINK
Slides 6-7: Great Sentences LINK
Slide 8: The Anatomy of an almost Perfect Sentence LINK
Slide 9: Independent and Dependent Clauses LINK
Slide 10: Run-On Sentences LINK
Slides 11-12: Comma Splices LINK
Slide 13: Free the Preposition LINK
Slide 14: Pronoun Case LINK
Slide 15: Rules, Rules, Rules LINK
Slide 16: Subject—Verb Agreement LINK
Slide 17: Collective Nouns LINK
2.
Punctuation
Slide 21: Punctuation Makes a Difference (LINK)
Slides 22-23: Bless the Comma (LINK)
Slide 24: More on Parenthetical Expressions (LINK)
Slide 25: The Comma’s Identity Crisis (LINK)
Slide 26: A Comma—The Difference between Life and Death (LINK)
Slide 27: The Panda Eats Shoots and Leaves (LINK)
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Punctuation: Table of Contents
2. Punctuation (Cont.)
Slide 28: Commas and Modifiers (LINK)
Slide 29: An Exercise on Commas (LINK)
Slide 30: The Dash (LINK)
Slides 31-33: The Hyphen and its Roles (LINK)
Slide 34-37: Conon-oscopy: Examining the Colon (LINK)
3. Common Errors
Slide 40: Headline Writer Headaches (LINK)
Slide 41: Can’t We just Get Along (LINK)
Slides 42-44: Common Errors (LINK)
Slide 45: To vs. Too (LINK)
Slides 46-47: Seven Special Rules to Live by in Formal (LINK)
Slide 48: Choose Words Wisely (LINK)
4. Proof, Proof, Proof
Slide 51: The Glaring Error (LINK)
Slide 52: Why We Proofread (LINK)
Slides 53: A Common—and Embarrassing—Error (LINK)
Slides 54-55: Proofreading Tips (LINK)
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Proof, Proof, Proof: Table of Contents
5. Short, Sweet & Precise
Slide 58: The Experts Agree; Brevity is a Virtue in Writing (LINK)
Slide 59: Words to Avoid; Filler Words (LINK)
Slide 60: Don’t Double Team the Reader (LINK)
Slide 61: Words to Avoid: Colloquialisms (LINK)
Slide 62: Cutting Words Down to Size (LINK)
Slide 65-69: Active Voice vs. Passive Voice (LINK)
6. Resources (LINK)
7. Glossary (LINK)
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PART 1—The Sentence
Understanding sentence structure is fundamental to great writing.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation,
conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
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The Sentence: Table of Contents
1. The Sentence
Slide 5: The Sentence: The Key to Grammar LINK
Slides 6-7: Great Sentences LINK
Slide 8: The Anatomy of an almost Perfect Sentence LINK
Slide 9: Independent and Dependent Clauses LINK
Slide 10: Run-On Sentences LINK
Slides 11-12: Comma Splices LINK
Slide 13: Free the Preposition LINK
Slide 14: Pronoun Case LINK
Slide 15: Rules, Rules, Rules LINK
Slide 16: Subject—Verb Agreement LINK
Slide 17: Collective Nouns LINK
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The Key to Grammar
Focus on the Sentence and Integrating its Parts
“If one understands that a sentence is a structure of logical relationships and that
the number of relationships involved is finite, one understands too that there is
only one error to worry about, the error of being illogical and only one rule to
follow: make sure that every component of your sentences is related to the other
components in a way that is clear and unambiguous.”
Stanley Fish, How to Write a Sentence:
And How to Read One
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Great Sentences
A great sentence communicates captures your attention, inducing you to
read on. These opening lines of exceptional novels all share the same trait.
After you read the first sentence, you cannot help but move on to the
second.
It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen.
George Orwell, 1984
Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía
was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to
discover ice.
Gabriel García Márquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude
It was a queer, sultry summer, the summer they electrocuted the
Rosenbergs, and I didn’t know what I was doing in New York.
Sylvia Plath, The Bell Jar
All this happened, more or less.
Kurt Vonnegut, Slaughterhouse-Five
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Great Sentences, Part II
There was a boy called Eustace Clarence Scrubb, and he almost deserved it.
C.S. Lewis, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
You better not never tell nobody but God.
Alice Walker, The Color Purple
Ships at a distance have every man’s wish on board.
Zora Neale Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God
It was a pleasure to burn.
Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451
The sky above the port was the color of television, tuned to a dead channel.
William Gibson, Neuromancer
I write this sitting in the kitchen sink.
Dodie Smith, I Capture the Castle
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The Anatomy of an Near Perfect Sentence
Please Left Click
Subject
Conjunction
Subject
Predicate
It was in the books while it was still in the sky.
John Updike (Quoted in Stanley Fish,
How to Write a Sentence: And How to Read One)
Predicate
Stanley Fish sees this as an almost perfect sentence. Written by John Updike, it
describes what it was like to see baseball Hall of Famer Ted Williams hit a home run in
his last at bat in Fenway Park. According to Fish, “The fulcrum of the sentence is
‘while.’” One side of the pivot point is a metaphor: this moment will be described “in
the book” before it hits the ground. On the other side, the ball “was still in the sky” in
three senses. It has “not yet landed,” “its motion is arrested,” and it will “remain
forever, in the sky of the books, in the record of the game’s highest, most soaring
achievements.” With the two clauses balancing on the word “while,” the sentence
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epitomizes how this memorable moment instantly became frozen in the memory of the
writer and the history of baseball.
Fish, Stanley (2011-01-25). How to Write a Sentence: And How to Read One
(Kindle Locations 167-173). HarperCollins. Kindle Edition.
Independent and Dependent Clauses
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate and expresses a complete thought.
“Grandpa Jody knows how to rap.”
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but
does not express a complete thought.
“When Grandpa Jody raps”
It is essential to be able to recognize the difference between independent
and dependent clauses, because you can make serious grammatical errors if
you do not. Purdue Online Writing Lab has an excellent fact sheet on the
topic. It also has a very short exercise. Use the exercise to make sure you
understand the concept.
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Run-On Sentences
What is a run-on sentence?
A run-on sentence has two or more independent clauses without
proper punctuation. For example,
He wears his silly costume everywhere he thinks he’s Iron Man.
“How do you fix a run-on sentence?”
It depends on what you want to say (see table).
Punctuate to Indicate the Connection between the Two Thoughts
Use a period to separate thoughts He wears his silly costume everywhere. He thinks he’s Iron Man.
Use a semi-colon to link the ideas
Use a conjunction with comma to
indicate
He wears his silly costume everywhere; he thinks he’s Iron Man.
Causality
He wears his silly costume everywhere, because he thinks he’s Iron Man.
Clarification
He wears his silly costume everywhere, but not when he goes to work.
Time
Use a semi-colon and adverbial
conjunction for variety
He wears his silly costume everywhere, even during his early morning jog.
He wears his silly Iron Man costume everywhere; however, he is harmless.
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The Comma Splice
Please Left Click
The comma splice is
all too common.

and
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The Comma Splice
What is a comma splice?
A sentence that has two or more independent clauses with a comma but not a
conjunction is a comma splice. For example,
He slept until noon every day, he goes to bed early.
How do you fix a comma splice?
It depends on what you want to say (see table).
Punctuate to Indicate the Connection between the Two Thoughts
Use a period to separate the thoughts
He sleeps until noon every day. He goes to bed early.
Use a semi-colon to link the ideas
He sleeps until noon every day; he goes to bed early.
Use a conjunction and comma to
Emphasize causality
He sleeps until noon every day, because he has narcolepsy.
Provide clarification
He sleeps until noon every day, except when he get his paycheck.
Indicate time
Use a semi-colon and adverbial
conjunction
He sleeps until noon every day, and goes to bed early every night.
He sleeps until noon every day; nonetheless, he goes to bed early.
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Free the Preposition!
Never end a sentence with a preposition?
This is an outdated rule that was based on a old view of Latin usage. If we
insist on this construction, our language will become clumsier. Sometimes,
ending a sentence with a preposition can be elegant (see below).
“We are the ones we have been waiting for.”
This is much better than the “correct” version.
“We are the ones for whom we have been waiting .”
A Relevant Conversation
Old-Fashioned Grammarian: “Ouch!”
Hip Grammarian:
“Are you hurt? What did you step on?”
Old-Fashioned Grammarian: “Never end a sentence with a
preposition. You should say on what did
you step?”
Hip Grammarian:
“Ok, What did you step on, IDIOT?”
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Pronoun Case
Three Cases: Subjective, Objective, and Possessive.
Pronouns in the subjective case act as subjects.
I, you, he, she, we, they, it, who
Pronouns in the objective case act as direct objects, indirect objects, and
objects of prepositions.
me, you, him, her, us, them, who
Pronouns in the possessive case indicate ownership adjectives.
my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, it, its, our, ours,
their, theirs, whose
For Example,
I grabbed my book from off the desk, because it belonged to me, but
Sheldon and Thad snatched it from me, because they said it was theirs.
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Rules, Rules, Rules
Is it who or whom?
Use "who" and "whoever" as subject pronouns, for
example
“Knock, knock.”
“Who's there?”
“Please hold.”
“Please hold whom.”
“Your knock is important to me and will be answered in the
order it was knocked.”
Use "whom" and "whomever" as object pronouns.
For example
“To whom it may concern, I will all my worldly
possession to my dearest friend, my poodle Jezebel.”
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Subject-Verb Agreement
Do not Confuse the Subject with the Object of the Preposition
Prepositional phrases
Preposition [e.g. "of," "at," and "in“] + Object [noun or pronoun]
Please Left Click
"Each of them is distinct."
Subject
Verb
Object
"The suggestions in his proposal have merit."
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Collective Nouns
Collective Nouns are Singular . . . Most of the time
Everyone knows your family is dysfunctional.
Nearly 25% of the population is Muslim.
But Sometimes . . .
A singular collective noun expresses a plural idea and needs a plural verb.
Our staff work hard to meet their goals and deadlines.
The orchestra are tuning their instruments.
The cast have been practicing their lines.
Common Collective Nouns
Army
Audience
Board
Cabinet
Class
Committee
Company
Corporation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xGMJtog25eI
Council
Department
Faculty
Family
Firm
Group
Jury
Majority
Minority
Navy
Public
School
Senate
Society
Team
Troupe
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PART 2: Punctuation
I bet the dishes are not too clean either.
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Punctuation: Table of Contents
2. Punctuation
Slide 21: Punctuation Makes a Difference (LINK)
Slides 22-23: Bless the Comma (LINK)
Slide 24: More on Parenthetical Expressions (LINK)
Slide 25: The Comma’s Identity Crisis (LINK)
Slide 26: A Comma—The Difference between Life and Death (LINK)
Slide 27: The Panda Eats Shoots and Leaves (LINK)
Slide 28: Commas and Modifiers (LINK)
Slide 29: An Exercise on Commas—What is wrong with these
sentences? (LINK)
Slide 30: The Dash (LINK)
Slides 31-33: The Hyphen and its Roles (LINK)
Slide 34-37: Conon-oscopy: Examining the Colon (LINK)
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Punctuation Makes a Difference.
A woman without
her man is nothing.
A woman: without her,
man is nothing.
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Bless the Comma
The Comma, Agent of Clarification
We would be lost without the comma, which enables us to provide unambiguous
communication by
Marking off sequences of words and phrases or words where there are no conjunctions or only
a final conjunction. For example,
“During Thanksgiving dinner, Mark managed to enrage his mother, father, both sisters, his
brother, Aunt Flo, Uncle Linus, Father Jim, and the next-door neighbor.”
Introducing quotations
“She said, ‘Some village is missing its idiot.’”
Clarifying meaning and preventing ambiguity. Without the comma for example, we would
assume Huey, Dewey, and Louie were not Donald Duck’s nephews, but three other cabinet
members:
“I had a horrible dream that Donald Trump was president and he named Rush Limbaugh, Mr.
Ed, Donald Duck’s nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie,
And the Three Stooges to his cabinet.”
Preventing run-on sentences by separating two independent clauses when used with
conjunctions. For example,
“Hate the sin, but love the sinner.”
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Bless the Comma (continued)
The Comma, Agent of Clarification
Separating two or more adjectives that describe the same noun. For example,
“My mean-spirited, vicious, ignorant, bigoted friend is a great guy.”
Indicating distinct pauses or shifts in tone. For example,
“Call me a cab.” “Ok you’re a cab, stupid twit.”
Setting parenthetical expressions apart from the rest of the sentence. For example,
“She, beautiful and aloof, walk toward me, and I, trembling and pale, ran away.”
“Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously.”
“If you are the smartest person you know, you must hang with a pretty dumb crowd.”
Setting off long propositional phrases (4 words or more)
“In the heat of the moment, he swore angrily.”
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More on Parenthetical Expressions
What is a parenthetical expression?
A parenthetical expression is a phrase that is not central to the main idea of the
sentence. We pause when we speak these phrases and use commas when we write
them. They are to
Add unnecessary, but useful information.
“Kristen Stewart used to be my favorite actress, but Jennifer Lawrence, the
winner of the Academy Award for Best Actress in 2013, is my favorite one now.”
Provide clarifying information
“The student over there, the one wearing the top hat and tails, made
a very strange comment about the party.”
Introduce a sentence
After the movie, I tried to give her a kiss, but she burst out laughing.
While he was not as ugly as she said, he sure was ugly.
Words that begin introductory, parenthetical clauses include
after, although, as, because, if, since, when, and while
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Please Left Click
The Comma’s Identity Crisis
Use a comma only if the name or phrase is the only one of its kind.
Cecelia saw the movie, Catching Fire, with her friend, Sabrina.
Use comma if Taken 2 is the
only movie in the world.
Use comma if Sabrina
is Cecelia’s only friend.
Cecelia saw the movie Taken 2 with her friend Sabrina.
Cecelia saw her favorite movie, Taken 2, with her oddest friend, Sabrina.
When the words “a,” “an” or “some,” or a number, come before the description or
identification of a name, use a comma.
Cecelia saw a movie, Taken 2, with three friends, Sabrina, Philicia, and Denitia.
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A Comma: the Difference between Life and Death
Please Left Click
Let’s eat,grandma!
She is so sweet!
Remove the
comma
And you
change the
meaning
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Please Left Click
The panda eats,shoots and leaves.
It’s this without
a comma
Add a comma . . .
And it’s this
Thanks to Lynne Truss for this classic example of
the misplaced comma and her wonderful book
Eats Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance
Approach to Punctuation.
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Commas and Modifiers
Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same
noun. Do not add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or
to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives or an adverb and the adjective it
modifies.
If you can put “and” between the adjectives or reverse the order of the adjectives
and the sentence would still make sense, you have coordinative adjectives and you
should use commas. The same rule applies when you have and adverb and an
adjective.
Reverse the order or add and. These still make sense.
He took a swim in the polluted, gray-green water.
He took a swim in the polluted and gray-green water.
He took a swim in the gray-green, polluted water
A
Special
Tip
But not these
He is a fiercely loyal friend.
He is a fiercely and loyal friend. (!)
He is a loyal fiercely friend.(!)
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What Is Wrong with these Sentences?
Please Left Click
Review these sentences to determine the
problem. Left click for the answers.
,
My father, who gave new meaning to the expression hard working
never took a vacation.
,
Although the weather was bitter cold he still walked the ten miles to
her house.
,
Philip Roth, author of “Portnoy’s Complaint” and many other books is a
perennial contender for the Nobel Prize.
, way they’ve been playing, the team will be lucky to survive the
“The
first round,” the coach, said “I’m just hoping someone gets a hot hand.”
.
;
,
He is a fine person however I can’t stand him.
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The Dash
A dash can be more effective than a comma— so, say the experts.
He was worse than a provincial, he was parochial.
He was worse than a provincial—he was parochial.
Henry James on David Thoreau
Each person is born to one possession which outvalues all his others: his last breath.
Each person is born to one possession which outvalues all his others—his last breath.
Mark Twain
Thirty: the promise of a decade of loneliness, a thinning list of single men to know, a
thinning briefcase of enthusiasm, thinning hair.
Thirty—the promise of a decade of loneliness, a thinning list of single men to know, a
thinning briefcase of enthusiasm, thinning hair.
F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby
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The Hyphen
The Evolution of Compound Words
Some compound nouns remain two words, some use hyphens, and some are
merged into one. There is no set rule. So, when in doubt, look it up!
Was
Became
Is Now
Leap Frog
Leap-Frog
Leapfrog
Pot-Belly
Pot-Belly
Pot Belly
Hyphenating Adjectives
The general rule–hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before a
noun and act as a single idea and when necessary to avoid confusion. For example,
Pot-bellied man
Long-haired composer
Long-term relationship
Why?
Dirty-magazine rack vs. Dirty magazine rack
Two-week sessions vs. Two week sessions
A
Special
Tip
If you can put an “and” between the two words, do not use a hyphen.
Pistol-packing mama (not pistol and packing mama)
Bloody-minded mama (not bloody and minded mama)
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The Hyphen Part 2
Hyphenating Adverbs
The general rule: When adverbs not ending in “ly” are used as compound words in front of a
noun, hyphenate. For example,
Well-known actress
Beady-eyed neighbor
Fine-tuned guitar
When the combination of words is used after the noun, do not hyphenate. For example,
“The neighbor gave me the creeps when he stared at me with his beady eyes.”
Do not hyphenate adverbs end in “ly” (If the word ends in “ly,” it is obviously an adverb and
no clarification is required.) For example,
Rarely sung anthem
Wickedly dressed Goth
Carefully phrased request
For example,
The wickedly dressed Goth beckoned me from across the room, scaring the hell out of me.
When the provocatively clothed beauty slinked across the room, I felt terror and joy, but my dream
collapsed when she embraced the man standing two feet in front of me
Use Hyphens for
Numbers over twenty when written out: twenty-three. For example,
Will you still need me, will you still feed me when I’m sixty-four.
Proper nouns when adding a prefix. For example,
Anti-American Un-American
Pre-Cambrian
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More Roles for Hyphens
Use hyphens for
Prefixes of one letter
X-ray B-team T-shirt
F-troop
X-men
R-rated movie
The prefixes ex, all, self and sometimes cross
ex-wife, all-knowing, self-actuated, cross-reference
Words in which prefixes end in A and I and the root word begins with the same letter.
semi-conscious ultra-orthodox quasi-instruction ultra-ambitious anti-intellectual
This is sometimes true with the E, O, and U, but check if you are unsure.
co-op, co-conspirator, co-equal (but not coordinator or cooperation) de-emphasize
However, the following prefixes rarely need hyphens: non, un, in, dis, co, anti, hyper, pre,
re, post, out, bi, counter, de, semi, mis, mega, micro, inter, over, and under
nonemergency, unstable, inpatient, disorder, coworker, antimatter, hyperactive, prejudge,
reoccur, outmoded, bimonthly, counterculture, decompress, semiannual, misjudge,
microphone, interconnected, override, underestimate
Use Hyphens with prefix when not to do so would cause confusion
re-cover vs. recover (I will re-cover the sofa when I recover from my hangover.)
re-lease vs. release (I will re-lease the apartment when they release me from prison.
36
Colon-oscopy: Examining the Colon
Rule One—A colon always follows an independent clause. For example,
Correct: Please pack the following for our camping trip: “Cristal, Maybach,
diamonds on your timepiece, jet planes, islands, tigers on a gold leash.”
Incorrect: Please pack: “Cristal, Maybach, diamonds on your timepiece, jet
planes, islands, tigers on a gold leash.”*
A
Special
Replace the colon with “namely.” If the sentence still
Tip
make sense, the colon is the right choice. For example,
Your new boyfriend is vey nice, except he has a few minor flaws: egotism,
nastiness, offensiveness, ignorance, slovenliness, chauvinism, stinginess,
greediness, and viciousness.
Your new boyfriend is vey nice, except he has a few minor flaws, namely egotism,
nastiness, offensiveness, ignorance, slovenliness, chauvinism, stinginess,
greediness, and viciousness.
* Lorde
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Colons and Lists
Rule One: The rules for colons are the same when used in bullets.
Of course, you would be a good couple, because you have so many
complementary, endearing qualities:
• Extreme vanity
An independent
• Unrivaled egocentricity
clause requires
• Extraordinary nastiness
a colon.
• Unparalleled narcissism
Of course, you would be a good couple, because of your
• Extreme vanity
• Unrivaled egocentricity
• Extraordinary nastiness
• Unparalleled narcissism
Don’t use a
colon following
a dependent
clause.
38
Silver Bullets and Numbers
Rule Two—The rules for colons are the same when used in lists:
Of course, you would be a good couple, because you
have so many complementary qualities:
• Your nastiness is extraordinary.
• Your narcissism is unbelievably extreme.
• Your vanity knows no bounds.
• Your egocentricity is remarkable in its intensity.
Use terminal
punctuation if your
bullets are sentences
Of course, you would be a good couple, because of your
• extraordinary nastiness
• extreme vanity
If bullets are not
• unparalleled narcissism
sentences, choose one
• unrivaled egocentricity
or the other. However,
no end punctuation is
more readable.
If the bullet is a sentence,
capitalize the first letter of the
bullet. If it is not, it is your choice.
39
Bullets: Order and Parallelism
Rule Three—Use numbers if the sequence is important
How to unlock my front door
1. Remove the padlock to the chain attaching the security bars to
the iron railing.
2. Unlock the security bars using the three different keys for the
three locks.
3. Remove the security bars.
4. Unlock the six locks on the front door.
5. Take out the steak from your pocket.
6. Open the front door.
7. Show the two pit bulls and the three Dobermans the steak before
throwing it as far from the stairs as possible.
8. Run up the stairs and into the bedroom as if your life depended
on it, because, in fact, it does.
9. Slam the bedroom door shut and block the door with the dresser.
Rule Four—Make sure your clauses
parallel (all verbs, nouns, infinitives, etc.
The bullets above all begin with verbs.
40
PART 3—Common Errors
Avoid grammatical errors if you do not want to
give people the wrong impression
41
Common Errors: Table of Contents
3. Common Errors
Slide 40: Headline Writer Headaches (LINK)
Slide 41: Can’t We just Get Along (LINK)
Slides 42-44: Common Errors (LINK)
Slide 45: To vs. Too (LINK)
Slides 46-47: Seven Special Rules to Live by in Formal (LINK)
Slide 48: Choose Words Wisely (LINK)
42
Headline Writer Headaches
Actual Headlines Found by the
Columbia Journalism Review
Escaped wallaby caught using huge fishing net
Man who stopped breathing in police car dies
Mother arrested after drowning
173 animals seized; 2 face cruelty charges
La. Chimpanzees get pregnant despite vasectomies
Soccer-Mom madam cools her heels in Riker’s, but will her
clients get off?
Shark bites land surfer in hospital
Afghanistan: U.S. pays $50,000 per killing to massacre families
In Three Rivers, community and family bore a hero
1 million get shot to save on loans
43
Can’t We Just Get Along?
Subject-Verb Agreement: The Simples Rule of All
Singular nouns take singular verbs and plural nouns take plural verbs.
I am skipping class to party.
We are skipping class to party.
Please Left Click
But . . .
is skipping class to party.
Everyone are
__
Everyone and everybody are singular nouns and take singular verbs
Everyone is skipping class to party.
So are anyone, anybody, no one, and nobody
It is too bad that no one is skipping class to party.
44
Please Left Click
Common Errors
Their They’re There are common errors that will loose lose
you points if you use them. Many of your you’re you are going
to make them. Its It’s a big problem and could effect affect
your future more than you’re your grade.
Confusing
Words
Correct Usage
Their, They’re,
There
Their stupidity is legendary. They’re lost in the funhouse. There
they go again.
Lose, Loose
You will lose the debate, because you are loose with the facts.
Its, It’s
It’s a pity that the car stopped running. Its tank is empty.
Effect, Affect
That’s an effect of the drug. By killing brain cells, the drug will
make you dumber,
Than
I am taller than her.
Then
In 50 years, Chicago will be hotter than New Orleans is today,
but I will be gone by then.
45
More Common Errors
More Confusing Words
LAY
DOWN!
It’s lie
down,
stupid!
Either or
Either she will attend or I will.
Neither nor
Neither Mary nor Jane like me.
For
I have not slept for three days.
Since
I have not slept since Monday
Lay
Lay your head on the pillow.
Lie
Lie on the bed until you’re
sober.
Lay versus Lie
Lay means to put something down. As a transitive verb,
it needs a direct object to follow it. For example,
Jane lay the blanket on her sleeping husband.
Lie means to rest or recline. It is an intransitive verb;
consequently, it does not require a direct object:
Jane’s husband lies on the couch when she is not looking
46
Please Left Click
More Common Errors
1. Missing comma after introductory element.
By the time I got out of bed˄it was well past noon.
,
2. Vague pronoun reference
Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the
motorcycle or the tree?)
Is it the tree or
the motorcycle?
I don't think they should show violence on TV.
Who are they?
3. Wrong word
Listening to the professors lectures, I was sedentary
sedated for a long time.
4. Wrong or missing preposition.
Will you accept that it is time of
for change.
Left Click Once
Left Click Once
47
To vs. Too
• Too means also or as well (“She loves me too”) or in excess
(“She loves you too much”).
• To is a preposition (“Send it to her”) or part of the infinitive
form of a verb (“I want to send her a letter”).
Too Many Cooks
Too Much Homework
Too Much Makeup
48
Seven Special Rules to Live by in
Formal Writing
Rule I: No Contractions!
Rule 2: No Slang
Rule 3: No Sentence Fragments
Rule 4: No Run-On Sentences or Comma Splices
Rule 5: No Papers with No Paragraphs
Rule 6: No Plagiarism
49
Rule 7: Then, Then, Then . . .
Rule 7: Do not overuse the word “then”
The Day After: A Brief Play
INT. HALL OF APARTMENT – MORNING
Bored POLICE OFFICER pounds of door to Apartment 666. A bedraggled, weary young MAN
answers the door.
MAN
Is there something wrong, officer?
OFFICER
Where were you on Saturday, January 1, 2013
MAN
After I woke up at 4:00 PM, I spent an hour trying to remember what happened the night
before, then I called my girlfriend and apologized, then I searched for my car for a couple of
hours, then I went to the police station to pay my fine, and then I went to my favorite bar to
relax. Then they told me they would have me arrested if I ever show-up there again. Then I
went home, and then I went back to bed.
50
Choose Words Wisely
Don’t assume that your reader thinks like
you. Be sensitive to educational, linguistic
and cultural differences.
When you write, “the woman walked into the
room,” who do you see? Who does your reader
see? Detail, clarity, and precision help ensure that
readers see what you want them to see. Use the
right not the almost right word
51
PART 4: Proof, Proof, Proof
The easiest way to make an error is to fail to
proof your text carefully and multiple times.
52
Proof, Proof, Proof: Table of Contents
4. Proof, Proof, Proof
Slide 51: The Glaring Error (LINK)
Slide 52: Why We Proofread (LINK)
Slides 53: One of the Most Common—and Embarrassing—Errors of All (LINK)
Slides 54-55: Proofreading Tips (LINK)
53
Avoiding the Glaring Error
Is there anything worse than putting your heart and soul into a
report and, as you hand it in, you see a dumb mistake—a typo in the
title, a repeated paragraph, or a stupid grammatical error? A flaw
like that is a bird dropping on a freshly waxed car, a pimple on the
tip of your nose on the day of the big date, or graffiti on a
masterpiece by Renoir:
Please Left Click
54
Why We Proofread
its
Please Left Click
55
Please Left Click
One of the Most Common—and
Embarrassing–Errors of All
(Trust me, I have seen it in numerous prestigious publications. A close
friend noticed she had made this error after 70,000 high-quality brochures
for the Chicago Orchestra had been mailed.)
˄
l
56
Proofreading Tips
1. Cultivate a healthy sense of doubt. If there are types of errors you
know you tend to make, double check for those.
2. Read very slowly. If possible, read out loud. Read one word at a
time.
3. Try to read what is actually on the Slides, not what you think is
there.
4. Proofread more than once. If possible, work with someone else.
5. Read backwards from the last sentence working forward.
6. Most people proof a printed copy better than on the computer, but
you may do better looking at the computer screen. Choose what is
best for you. Better yet, proof in both mediums.
7. Let your work sit for a while before you proofread it. If possible,
leave it sit overnight
8. Remember, many errors are introduced during the correcting
process, so be careful when editing your copy.
A
Special
Tip
57
More Proofreading Tips
1. Faulty information from the kinesthetic (body) memory can cause you to make
errors. Consequently, if you have always misspelled a word like "accommodate“
or tomorrow, you will probably unthinkingly misspell it again.
2. Your mind works far faster than the pen, and a split second of inattention will
lead to an error. Stay focused!
3. Reformat your document to trick your brain into looking at it as a fresh
document. You can change the document to landscape view, increase font size
or color, or use an unfamiliar typeface.
4. Find a “clean, well-lighted place” in which to work where there are the fewest
distractions possible.
5. Give yourself plenty of time to proofread. It should be part of project planning.
Don’t wait until you are on the bus on the way to class.
6. If you think you will make a mistake, you will.
A
Special
Tip58
PART 5—Short, Sweet & Precise
Avoid excess—Be Direct—Be Brief—Be Done
59
Short, Sweet & Precise: Table of Contents
5. Short, Sweet & Precise
Slide 58: The Experts Agree; Brevity is a Virtue in Writing (LINK)
Slide 59: Words to Avoid; Filler Words (LINK)
Slide 60: Don’t Double Team the Reader (LINK)
Slide 61: Words to Avoid: Colloquialisms (LINK)
Slide 62: Cutting Words Down to Size (Surgery for Sentences
Animation) (LINK)
Slide 65-69: Active Voice vs. Passive Voice (LINK)
60
The Experts Agree
Brevity Is a Virtue in Writing
I have made this longer than usual because I have not had time to make it
shorter.
Blaise Pascal
I have already made this paper too long, for which I must crave pardon, not
having now time to make it shorter.
Benjamin Franklin
You’ll have to excuse my lengthiness—the reason I dread writing letters is
because I am so apt to get to slinging wisdom & forget to let up. Thus much
precious time is lost.
Mark Twain
It depends. If I am to speak ten minutes, I need a week for preparation; if
fifteen minutes, three days; if half an hour, two days; if an hour, I am ready
now.
President Woodrow Wilson
If I had my time to go over again, I would make my sermons much shorter, for I
am conscious they have been too wordy.
61
Martin Luther
Words to Avoid: Filler Words
Filler words are the linguistic equivalent of verbal sounds, such as “umm.”
They fill space, but do not add to the conversation.
Basically can be used at the beginning of sentence on occasion, but is not
recommended. Do not use within a sentence where it is usually irrelevant.
“He is basically a toad.”
Even is often used in a series, but it is not needed and usually extraneous.
“My uncle showed up at my door in his pajamas, robe, and even Superman slippers.”
Just is often used as an alternative to basically and is not very useful.
“When complaining to the professor, just don’t lose your temper.”
Well appears at the front of a sentence that follows a question.
“Why are you so ugly?” “Well, I was born this way.”
For all Intents and purposes are five words looking for a good home,
but shut the door on them.
For all intents and purposes, this sentence is too long.
62
Don’t Double Team the Reader
Avoid using two words that mean the same thing.
Please Left Click
FUTURE
FREE
LARGER
END
PAST
TRUE
FACTS
IN
SIZE
HISTORY
RESULT
PLANS
GIFT
63
Words to Avoid: Colloquialisms
Colloquial words and expressions are appropriate for informal
speech. However, they are unsuitable in formal writing, and some
readers find them to be off-putting.
A lot: Use several, countless, many, and similar words of instead. [The misspelling
of a lot (allot or alot) is two mistakes in one].
Alright: Neither this union of two words (all right) nor its twin, okay, is OK (nor is
OK).
Could of, would of, should of: You should have used could have, would have, or
should have if you wanted a good grade.
Kinda, kind of: When you use these words to replace “somewhat” or “rather,” you
kinda sound dumb. Sorta and sort of is no better.
Use Like instead of “as if", "similar to", or "such as", if you want to sound like a
Valley Girl trapped in the 1980s. If not, don’t use it.
Very is a weak word and should be used sparingly, but NEVER use its feebler friends
pretty and really.
64
Before
Please Left Click
After
Cutting Words Down to Size
The Power of Subtraction and Concision
This animation demonstrates how to perform surgery on weak
sentences to make them active and more effective. This animation
takes some time to develop, so hesitate before trying to advance the
slide. The last animation ends with “And only 12 words.”
65
A Perfectly Fine Sentence . . . That Could Be Better . . . Let’s get it in shape
A Simple Cure: Remove Excess Words and Passive Verbs
Step 1: Find the verbs.
Are they active or passive?
Step 2: Eliminate passive verbs.
Step 3: Where does the action
occur in the sentence?
Is it a verb or noun?
Step 4: Replace the static noun
with an active verb.
˄
This animation demonstrates
demonstrates
˄
In effective
this animation
is a to
an
approach
demonstration
of an effective
writing convincing
approach
writingprose
prose .that
and to
concise
is convincing and concise.˄
Let’s Compare
Sentences
Step Six: Remove all words no
Step Five: Eliminate need for “that is” by
Step Seven: Pull it all together
longer required.
moving the noun to follow the two
adjectives that modify it.
66
The Original Sentence
In this animation is a demonstration of an effective
approach to writing prose that is convincing and concise.
A Sentence of 18 Words
The Revised Sentence
with the passive verbs and unnecessary words removed
This animation demonstrates an effective approach to
writing convincing and concise prose.
-
Compelling
Convincing
Convincing, Concise, and Conclusive
Conclusive
And only 12 Words
67
Active Voice vs. Passive Voice
Active Voice
The subject performs the action denoted by the verb. For example,
“I shot the sheriff, but I did not shoot the deputy.”
“He took me to the cleaners”
“Who’s going to run this town tonight?”
“I love you!”*
Passive Voice
The subject is being acted upon by the action denoted by the verb.
The sheriff was shot by me, but the deputy was not shot by me.
I was taken to the cleaners by him.
Please Left Click
This town is going to be run tonight by whom?
“You are loved by me.”*
*Note: In the active form, you feel obligated to use and
exclamation point. In the passive version , you do not.
68
More Examples of Passive Voice
Passive: “There is a considerable range of expertise demonstrated by
hackers.”
Passive: “It was determined by the officer that I would be arrested
immediately.”
Passive: “My car could have been kept by me if the trivia question on
the color of the Green Giant had been answered correctly by me.”
Passive: “In psychotherapy, participants are helped by the other
participants to realize that most of their problems are shared by others.”
Passive: “Reality shows are believed by me to be the most unreal
programs developed by TV producers.”
69
Four Reasons for Passive Sentences
1. Lawyers use it to hide the identity of the person committing the action
The body was pulled from the room.
Left Click Once
2. When we do not know who or what
committed the action.
My car has been stolen.
Who has been eating my porridge?
3. To make the object of the verb more
important than the subject of the sentence.
President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey
Oswald.
He was killed with a gun.
70
Five Reasons for Passive Sentences (cont.)
4. When the subject of the sentence is so long or complex that
the reader will be long delayed in reaching the verb, then the
writer may choose to place the verb before the subject.
Acceptable Active Formulation:
The committee reports, the floor debates, the presidential
statement, and the administrative agency's interpretive guidance
mandate the statutory interpretation we have chosen.
Acceptable Passive Formulation:
The statutory interpretation we have chosen is mandated by the
committee reports, the floor debates, the presidential statement,
and the administrative agency's interpretive guidance.
71
Five Reasons for Passive Sentences (cont.)
5. Scientists and scholars often use passive voice because,
because they believe it sounds more objective. Writers do
not have to use personal pronouns of research names, and
conclusions can presented without appearing to be biased.
Passive Formulation:
The drug was proven to be effective when the larger dose
was administered. However, more negative side effects
were experienced by the patients.
Active Formulation:
Researchers proved the drug was more effective when
they administered a larger dose. However, patients
experienced more negative side effects.
72
PART 6: Resources for
Writers
(Link to resources)
73
Resources for Writers
This is a very select list of the best online and print resources you can use to
support and enhance your writing.
Handbooks and Style Guides
The Associated Press Stylebook LINK
The Chicago Manual of Style LINK
The Modern Language Association Handbook (at Purdue Owl) LINK
William Strunk, Jr., The Elements of Style LINK
References
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary LINK
Online Etymology Dictionary LINK
Rodale, J. J., The Synonym Finder LINK
Online Grammar Courses
“HyperGrammar,” The University of Ottawa LINK
Technical Writing
“Writing Guideline for Engineering and Science Students Penn State University LINK
74
Resources for Writers
Popular Grammar and Writing Websites
“The Center for Writing Studies: Grammar Handbook,” University of Illinois at UrbanChampaign LINK
Fogarty, Mignon, “Grammar Girl’s Quick and Dirty Tricks,” “Friendly guide to the world of
grammar, punctuation, usage, and fun developments in the English language.” LINK
Nordquist, Richard, “About.com Grammar & Composition,” LINK
The Purdue Online Writing Lab LINK
Simmons, Robin L. “Grammar Bytes,” LINK
Superior Books on Writing
Bradbury, Ray, Zen in the Art of Writing LINK
Bryson, Bill, The Mother Tongue
Fish, Stanley, How to Write a Sentence and How to Read One LINK
Goldberg, Natalie, Writing Down the Bones: Freeing the Writer Within LINK
King, Stephen, On Writing LINK
Lamott, Anne, Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life LINK
Truss, Lynne, Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation LINK
75
PART 7: Glossary
76
Glossary
COMMA SPLICE: A type of run-on (or fused) sentence when two independent clauses
are joined with a comma without the necessary conjunction.
Slim Shady split town the sheriff was tracking him down.
DIRECT OBJECT: The noun, pronoun, phrase or clause that follows a transitive verb
(an action verb). For example,
Slim Shady followed thee banker to the vault
INTRANSITIVE VERB: An action verb describing an activity that does not have a direct
object.*
Slim Shady arrived late and missed the banker.
PREDICATE: The part of a sentences or clause that is governed by a verb and states,
affirms, or asserts something about the subject of a sentence.
Slim Shady argued about everything.
RUN-ON SENTENCE: When two independent clauses are joined without a period,
semi-colon, or comma and conjunction. For example,
Slim Shady loved Lucille She loved Fat Sunny.
Note: Some verbs can be use as transitive or intransitive verbs.
The children played tag. (“Played” is transitive.)
The children played in the backyard. (“Played” is intransitive.)
77
Glossary
SUBJECT: What or whom the sentence is about. It usually comes before the predicate.
(Return to Slides.)
Slim Shady is . . . well . . . ah . . . shady.
TRANSITIVE VERB: This verb is an action verb describing an activity one can do to a
direct object, the thing or person that receives the action.*
Slim Shady robbed the banker.
Note: Some verbs can be use as transitive or intransitive verbs.
The children played tag. (“Played” is transitive.)
The children played in the backyard. (“Played” is intransitive.)
.
78
The Golden Rule of Punctuation
Be Consistent!
79
A Perfectly Fine Sentence . . . That Could Be Better . . . Let’s get it in shape
A Simple Cure: Remove Excess Words and Passive Verbs
Step 1: Find the verbs.
Are they active or passive?
Step 2: Eliminate passive verbs.
Step 3: Where does the action
occur in the sentence?
Is it a verb or noun?
Step 4: Replace the static noun
with an active verb.
˄
This animation demonstrates
demonstrates
˄
In effective
this animation
is a to
an
approach
demonstration
of an effective
writing convincing
approach
writingprose
prose .that
and to
concise
is convincing and concise.˄
Let’s Compare
Sentences
Step Six: Remove all words no
Step Five: Eliminate need for “that is” by
Step Seven: Pull it all together
longer required.
moving the noun to follow the two
adjectives that modify it.
80