Computer Architecture
計算機組織與結構
Instructor: 左瑞麟
raylin@cs.nccu.edu.tw
Office:200314
分機：62328
課程網頁

http://www.cs.nccu.edu.tw/~raylin/Undergr
aduateCourse/ComputerArchitecture/2010.
htm
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課程目標

本課程旨在介紹計算機硬體的基本概念
與製作方式，利用各種實例，對相關主
題作深入淺出之說明，期能使學生瞭解
電腦的組織架構與重要技術。
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課程大綱
1. 學習電子計算機系統設計原理。
2. 熟悉中央處理器單元的結構與運作。
3. 熟悉指令集架構的設計與取捨。
4. 了解 CPU 及其週邊設備的關係及其運
作方式。
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上課進度
週次
日期
進
1
9/14
Syllabus
Chapter 1: Computer Abstractions and Technology
2
9/21
Chapter 1: Computer Abstractions and Technology
3
9/28
Chapter 2: Instructions: Language of the Computer
4
10/5
Chapter 2: Instructions: Language of the Computer
5
10/12
Chapter 3: Arithmetic for Computers
6
10/19
Chapter 3: Arithmetic for Computers
7
10/26
How to Program
8
11/2
Chapter 4: The Processor
9
11/9
Chapter 4: The Processor
10
11/16
Mid-term Exam
11
11/23
Chapter 4: The Processor
12
11/30
Chapter 4: The Processor
13
12/7
Chapter 5: Large and Fast: Exploiting Memory Hierarchy
14
12/14
Chapter 5: Large and Fast: Exploiting Memory Hierarchy
15
12/21
Chapter 6: Storage and Other I/O Topics
16
12/28
Chapter 6: Storage and Other I/O Topics
17
1/4
Chapter 7: Multicores, Multiprocessors, and Clusters
18
1/11
期末考
度
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教學方式


講授(投影片)
作業與測驗
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Prerequisite



Some background in assembly language
Boolean algebra
Logic design
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評分標準



作業,報告及上課表現 25%,
期中考 35%,
期末考 40%
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Textbook

D. A. Patterson,
J. L. Hennessy.
Computer Organization
& Design:
The Hardware/Software
Interface, 4th. ed.,
Morgan Kaufmann, 2008
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Chapter 1
Computer Abstractions
and Technology
2010/9/14

Progress in computer technology


Underpinned by Moore’s Law
Makes novel applications feasible






§1.1 Introduction
The Computer Revolution
Computers in automobiles
Cell phones
Human genome project
World Wide Web
Search Engines
Computers are pervasive
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Classes of Computers

Desktop computers



Server computers




General purpose, variety of software
Subject to cost/performance tradeoff
Network based
High capacity, performance, reliability
Range from small servers to building sized
Embedded computers


Hidden as components of systems
Stringent power/performance/cost constraints
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Characteristics of Embedded
Computers

A computer inside another device

Microprocessors found in a car, a cell phone
or PDA, etc.

Used for running one predetermined application

Have unique application requirements that

Combine a minimum performance with
stringent limitations on cost or power
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The Processor Market
2010/9/14
百
萬
顆
處
理
器
圖1.2 1998至2002年所有的指令集架構為處理器的銷售量。關於「其餘」
的種類是指定應用或客製化的處理器。在ARM的例子裡，大約有80%的
銷售量是使用在手機上，他們結合了ARM和特定應用邏輯在單一晶片上。
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What You Will Learn

How programs are translated into the
machine language



The hardware/software interface
What determines program performance



And how the hardware executes them
And how it can be improved
How hardware designers improve
performance
What is parallel processing
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Understanding Performance
Hardware or software component
How this component affects
performance
Algorithm
Determines both the number of
source-level statements and the
number of I/O operations executed
Programming language, compiler, and
architecture
Determines the number of machine
instructions for each source-level
statement
Processor and memory system
Determines how fast instructions can
be executed
I/O system (hardware and operating
system)
Determines how fast I/O operations
may be executed
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Below your program



A hardware in a computer can only
execute low-level instructions
Needs several layers of software to
interpret or translate high-level operations
into simple computer instructions
Layers of software are organized primarily
in a hierarchical fashion
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§1.2 Below Your Program
Below Your Program

Application software


Written in high-level language
System software


Compiler: translates HLL code to
machine code
Operating System: service code




Handling input/output
Managing memory and storage
Scheduling tasks & sharing resources
Hardware

Processor, memory, I/O controllers
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From a High-level Language
to the Language of Hardware




The machine alphabet is just two letters; “on”
and “off”
1 and 0 are the two symbols for these two
letters
We refer to each letter as a binary digit or bit
Instructions are just collections of bits that the
computer understands
 For example: 1000110010100000
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




The first programmers communicated to computers in
binary numbers
They quickly invented new notations that were closer
to the way humans think
 Translated to binary by hand
Finally, using the machine to help program the
machine
The first of these programs was named an assembler
Assembler: a program that translates a symbolic
version of instructions into the binary version
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
Assembler: a program that translates a symbolic version of
instructions into the binary version

add A, B
1000110010100000

The name for this symbolic language is called assembly
language

High-level programming language: a portable language such
as C, Fortran, or Java composed of words and algebraic
notations that can be translated by a compiler into assembly
language

A+B
add A, B
1000110010100000
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Benefits of High-level
Programming Languages



Allow the programmer to think in a more
natural language
Improve programmer productivity
Allow programs to be independent of the
computer on which they were developed
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Levels of Program Code

High-level language



Assembly language


Level of abstraction closer
to problem domain
Provides for productivity
and portability
Textual representation of
instructions
Hardware representation


Binary digits (bits)
Encoded instructions and
data
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The BIG Picture


The five classic components
are
input (輸入), output（輸出）,
memory（記憶體）,
datapath（資料路徑） and
control（控制單元）
The last two sometimes
combined and called the
processor(處理器)
§1.3 Under the Covers
Components of a Computer
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The BIG Picture

Same components for
all kinds of computer


Desktop, server,
embedded
§1.3 Under the Covers
Components of a Computer
Input/output includes

User-interface devices


Storage devices


Display, keyboard, mouse
Hard disk, CD/DVD, flash
Network adapters

For communicating with
other computers
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Anatomy of a Computer
Output
device
Network
cable
Input
device
Input
device
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Anatomy of a Mouse



The original mouse was electromechanical
It used a large ball that when rolled across a surface
would cause an x and y counter to be incremented
The amount of increase in each counter told how far
the mouse had been moved
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Anatomy of a Mouse

Optical mouse



LED illuminates
desktop
Tiny black-and-white
camera
Basic image processor



Looks for x, y
movement
Buttons & wheel
Supersedes roller-ball
mechanical mouse
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Through the Looking Glass

LCD screen: picture elements (pixels)

Mirrors content of frame buffer memory
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Opening the Box
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Inside the Processor (CPU)



Datapath: performs operations on data
Control: sequences datapath, memory, ...
Cache memory

Small fast SRAM memory for immediate
access to data
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Inside the Processor

AMD Barcelona: 4 processor cores
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Abstractions
The BIG Picture

Abstraction helps us deal with complexity


Instruction set architecture (ISA)


The hardware/software interface
Application binary interface


Hide lower-level detail
The ISA plus system software interface
Implementation

The details underlying and interface
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A Safe Place for Data

Volatile main memory


Loses instructions and data when power off
Non-volatile secondary memory



Magnetic disk
Flash memory
Optical disk (CDROM, DVD)
2010/9/14
A Safe Place for Data
DRAM and SRAM

Dynamic random access memory (DRAM):



Several DRAMS are used together to contain the instructions
and data of a program
It provides random access to any location
Cache memory
 A small, fast memory that acts as a buffer for the DRAM memory
 Built using a different memory technology, static random access
memory (SRAM)
 More expensive than DRAM
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A Safe Place for Data


The access times for magnetic disks are much
slower than for DRAMs
 About 100,000 times faster
The cost per megabyte of disk is about 100 times
less expensive than DRAM
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Networks
Communicating with other computers









Several major advantages of networked computers:
Communication
Resource sharing
Nonlocal access
Ethernet is the most popular type of network
Local area network (LAN): Ethernet
Within a building
Wide area network (WAN: the Internet
Wireless network: WiFi, Bluetooth
2010/9/14
Technologies for building
processors and memories




Vacuum tube
 An electronic component, predecessor of the
transistor
Transistor
 An on/off switch controlled by an electric signal
Integrated circuit (IC)
 It combined dozens to hundreds of transistors into a
single chip
Very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuit
 A device containing hundreds of thousands to millions
of transistors
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2010/9/14
Technology Trends

Electronics
technology
continues to evolve


Increased capacity
and performance
Reduced cost
Year
Technology
1951
Vacuum tube
1965
Transistor
1975
Integrated circuit (IC)
1995
Very large scale IC (VLSI)
2005
Ultra large scale IC
DRAM capacity
Relative performance/cost
1
35
900
2,400,000
6,200,000,000
2010/9/14
千
位
元
容
量
發表時間
圖1.13 動態隨機存取記憶體晶片隨時間演變的容量成長圖。Y軸以千位元
做量測，千指的是1024 (210 )。這二十年來，動態隨機存取記憶體工業幾乎
每三年便會提高四倍的容量，相當每年百分之六十。每三年增加四倍的估
計為動態隨機存取記憶體的成長法則。近年來，成長率已經逐漸趨緩，而
稍微接近每二年倍增或每四年增加四倍。
2010/9/14
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
Moore’s law

Transistor capacity doubles every 18 to 24 months
Year of introduction
Transistors
4004
1971
2,250
8008
1972
2,500
8080
1974
5,000
8086
1978
29,000
286
1982
120,000
386™ processor
1985
275,000
486™ DX processor
1989
1,180,000
Pentium® processor
1993
3,100,000
Pentium II processor
1997
7,500,000
Pentium III processor
1999
24,000,000
Pentium 4 processor
2000
42
42,000,000
2010/9/14