2. The Changing Nature of
Leadership
Complexities of Leadership
Leadership means different things to different
people.
 The meaning varies from country to country.

 However,
there are universally desired leadership
attributes (GLOBE research).

The context in which leadership is practiced
is a central question to understanding it.
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Leadership Myths
Leaders are born, not made.
 Leadership is hierarchical, and you need to
hold a formal position (have status and
power) to be considered a leader.
 You have to have charisma to be an effective
leader.

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Leadership Myths
There is one standard way of leading.
 It is impossible to be a manager and a leader
at the same time.
 You only need to have common sense to be
an effective leader.

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Definitions of Leadership
Early 1900s definition portrays the leader as
controller of events and infers control over
people.
 Contemporary definitions focus on the
relationship processes between people
working toward a common goal.
 Authors’ definition: A relational and ethical
process of people together attempting to
accomplish positive change.

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Metaphorical Definitions of Leadership

Symphony
 Consider

Jazz ensemble
 Consider

roles of conductor and musicians.
roles of the musicians working together.
Performance art
 Consider
the balance of both process and
outcomes.
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Generations of Leadership Theories
Great Man Approach (Mid-1800s to early
1900s)
Assumptions
 Leadership development is based on Darwinistic
principles.
 Leaders are born, not made.
 Leaders have natural abilities of power and
influence.
Critique
 Scientific research has not proved that
leadership is based on hereditary factors.
 Leadership was believed to exist only in a few
individuals.
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Trait Approach (1904 to 1947)
Assumptions
 A leader has superior or endowed qualities.
 Certain individuals possess a natural ability to lead.
 Leaders have traits that differentiate them from followers.
Critique
 The situation is not considered in this approach.
 Many traits are too obscure or abstract to measure and
observe.
 Studies have not adequately linked traits with leadership
effectiveness.
 Most trait studies omit leadership behaviors and followers’
motivation as mediating variables.
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Behavioral Approach(1950s to early
1980s)
Assumptions
 There is one best way to lead.
 Leaders who express high concern for both
people and production or consideration and
structure will be effective.
Critique
 Situational variables and group processes are
ignored; studies failed to identify the situations
in which specific types of leadership behaviors
are relevant.
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Situational/Contingency Approach
(1950s to 1960s)
Assumptions
 Leaders act differently, depending on the situation.
 The situation determines who will emerge as a
leader.
 Different leadership behaviors are required for
different situations.
Critique
 Most contingency theories are ambiguous, making it
difficult to formulate specific, testable propositions.
 Theories lack accurate measures.
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Influence/Charismatic Approach
(1980s to 1990s)
Influence on followers is based on the
leader’s charismatic personality rather than
on traditional power and authority.
 The context of the situation and the needs of
the followers are particularly relevant
considerations in determining what makes a
leader charismatic.
 Deference to a leader based on charm can
lead to blind followership and misuses of
power.

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Reciprocal Leadership Theories (1980s
to the present)
Several reciprocal theories are explored here.
All of these theories:
 Focus on the reciprocal nature of leaderfollower interactions
 Emphasize collective goals rather than the
leader’s goal
 Elevate the importance of the role of
followers in the leadership process
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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Servant Leadership

The leader’s role is to serve the followers.

What do they need in order to accomplish their goal?
(training, encouragement, coaching, etc.)
The leader is motivated by a desire to make a
positive difference for others.
Critique
 Is not a measurable model, so not supported by
research.
 Followers have a more traditional, passive role.

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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Transforming Leadership
“…a process where leaders and followers raise
one another to higher levels of morality and
motivation.” ―James MacGregor Burns
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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Transforming Leadership
Major Assumptions
 Leaders motivate by appealing to “higher ideals and moral
values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, and
humanitarianism” rather than a transactional exchange of
rewards or punishments
 The group’s process matters as much as results.

Through the experience, both leaders and followers are
transformed to higher ethical aspirations and conduct.
Major Criticism
 It is a vague theory, making it difficult to measure. Hard to
prove the degree that leaders and followers are
transformed
 It is more leader-centric than most reciprocal theories.
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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Complexity Theory
“Leadership is not the influence of an
individual but is embedded in a complex
interplay of numerous interacting forces.”
Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity
leadership theory: Shifting Leadership from the industrial age
to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 298–
318.
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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Complexity Theory
Major Assumptions
 The source of change is attributed to the
interactive dynamics of all the people and
ideas influencing the process.
 People at all levels of the organization
interact and adapt to rapidly shifting realities
as they work toward their goal.
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Reciprocal Leadership: Adaptive
Leadership
Rather than getting followers to do the leader’s
wishes, leadership occurs when interacting
individuals generate adaptive outcomes that
are needed to accomplish their goal.
 Group members no longer rely on formal
leaders to provide direction or authorization.
 Requires group members with emotional
intelligence and a strong sense of common
values and goals.
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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Shared Leadership
“A dynamic, interactive influence process
among individuals in groups for which the
objective is to lead one another to the
achievement of the group or organizational
goals or both….Leadership is broadly
distributed among a set of individuals instead
of centralized in hands of a single individual
who acts in the role of a superior.”
Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (2003). Shared leadership: Reframing the
hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Reciprocal Leadership Theories:
Shared Leadership




Leadership is owned by the whole system as
opposed to the formal leader.
Leadership is distributed among interdependent
group members.
Leadership is embedded in social interactions, it
occurs through relationships, with followers
influencing and initiating leadership.
Leadership requires mutual learning,
heightened understanding by learning from
each other’s perspectives.
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Followership
Effective followers
 Manage themselves well.
 Are committed to the organization and to a
purpose, principle, or person outside
themselves.
 Build their competence and focus their efforts
for maximum impact.
 Are courageous, honest, and credible.
Kelley, R. E. (1988). In praise of followers. Harvard Business Review, 66(6),
142–148.
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Emerging Leadership Theory
Industrial Paradigm
 Structural-functionalist
 Management-oriented
 Leader-centric (little attention
to the role of others in the
group)
 Goal-achievement dominated
 Self-interested and
individualistic in outlook
 Male-oriented
 Utilitarian and materialistic in
ethical perspective
 Linear and scientific in
language and methodology
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Post-Industrial Paradigm
 More attention to relationships
than organizational structure
 Attention given to the
interdependent roles of
everyone in the group
 Emphasis on good process as
well as good results
 Emphasis on good outcomes for
everyone, not just the leader
 Nonlinear approach. No step-bystep easy answers, but requires
ability to adapt and respond
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A Rapidly Changing World: Chaos
Theory
The world:
 Is inherently unpredictable
 While at another level it displays a “hidden
pattern”
 Is made of connected wholes, rather than
distinct parts
 Cannot be controlled, but can be influenced
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Chaos Theory:
Competing Expectations and Realities
The way things “ought” to be
 Perfection is expected the
first time.
 Goals are predictable with
complete certainty.
 Control is expected.
 Efficiency is the standard
of competence.
 Predictability is assumed.
The way things actually are
 Informed experimentation
is necessary.
 Additional and new goals
will always appear.
 Absolute control is rare
and cannot be maintained
over the long term.
 Redundancy and detours
fuel creativity and
innovation.
 Probabilities are the
norm.
Allen, K. E., & Cherrey, C. (2000). Systemic leadership: Enriching the
meaning of our work. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, p. 20.
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Authentic Leadership
Authentic leaders know who they are, what
they value, and act transparently.
 Leadership relationships have

 Transparency,
openness, and trust
 Are working toward worthy objectives
 Emphasis on personal development of followers
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