CommonKADS
Context Models
Organization Model
Task Model
Agent Model
Knowledge always functions
within an organizational context
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Why context modelling?
Role of aspect models: organization, task, and agent
models
Steps and techniques in knowledge-oriented business
analysis
Illustrations: ice-cream case study, housing case study
Context models
2
Why context modeling?
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Often difficult to identify profitable use of (knowledge)
technology
Laboratory is different from the ''real'' world
Acceptability to users very important
Fielding into ongoing process not self evident
Often not clear what additional measures to take
Context models
3
Goals for context modeling
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Identify problems and opportunities
Decide about solutions and their feasibility
Improve tasks and task-related knowledge
Plan for needed organizational changes
Context models
4
Role of knowledge systems
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"automation" is not the right way to look at KSs
tasks are usually too complex
much better view: KS as process-improvement tool
typical role of KS: active intelligent assistant
Context models
5
Context modelling process
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Step 1: Carry out a scoping and feasibility study
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Step 2: Carry out impact and improvement study
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Tool: Organization Model (OM)
Tool: Task and Agent Models (TM, AM)
 zooming in/refinement of organization model
Each study consists of an analysis part and a
“constructive” decision-making part
Context models
6
Step 1: scoping and feasibility
study
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Step 1a: analysis
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Identify problem/opportunity areas and potential solutions
Put them into a wider organizational perspective.
Step 1b: synthesis
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Context models
Decide about economic, technical and project feasibility
Select the most promising focus area and target solution.
7
Step 2: impacts and
improvements study
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Step 2a: analysis
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study interrelationships between the task, agents involved,
and use of knowledge for successful performance
what improvements may be achieved here?
Step 2b: synthesis
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Context models
Decide about organizational measures and task changes,
Ensure organizational acceptance and integration of a
knowledge system solution
8
Three context models
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scope and feasibility study
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organization model (OM)
description and analysis of the broader organizational
environment
impacts and improvements study
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Context models
task model (TM) and agent model (AM)
more focused and detailed
zooms in on the relevant part of the organization
TM: tasks plus knowledge directly related to the target
problem
AM: agents involved in TM tasks
9
Worksheets
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Modeling process supported by worksheets
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Organization model: 5 worksheets
Task model: 2 worksheets
Agent model: 1 worksheet
Summary: 1 worksheet
Act as checklist and information archive
Should be used flexibly
Context models
10
How to analyze a knowledgeintensive organization?
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describe organization aspects:
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opportunity/problems portfolio
business context, goals, strategy
internal organization:
–
–
–
–
–
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structure
processes
people (staff: functional roles)
power and culture
resources (knowledge, support systems, equipment,…)
do this for both current and future organization
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Context models
comparison, and first decisions on where to go
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Worksheets
Organization Model
Organization Model
OM-1
OM-2
Problems
&
Opportunities
Organization
Focus Area
Description:
General
Context
(Mission,
Strategy,
Environment,
CSF's,...)
Structure
Process
OM-3
OM-4
Process
Breakdown
People
Culture & Power
Resources
Potential
Solutions
Context models
Knowledge
Knowledge
Assets
12
OM-1: problem /opportunity
identification
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shortlist of perceived problems/opportunities
organizational context = invariant part
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list possible solutions
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mission, vision, goals of the organization
important external factors
strategy of the organization, value chain
for the perceived problems and opportunities
compatible with organizational context.
techniques: interviews, brainstorming
Context models
13
Case Study: Ice-cream
product development
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Unilever food/personal care industry worldwide
First analysis step by worksheet OM-1:
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Perceived problem/opportunity issues:
– Speed-up time to market of new ice-cream products
– Leverage best-practice knowledge throughout the company
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Vision:
Product
formulation
Manufacturing
Product properties
(physical, sensory)
Marketing
Production
processes
Feedback learning loop
Context models
Consumer
preferences
14
OM-1 for Housing
Organization Model
Problems and Opportunities
Worksheet OM-1
Problems and
opportunities
assessment takes too much time
not sufficient time for urgent cases
Organizational
context
Mission: transparency of procedure, clear
applicant responsibility
External actors: local council, public
opinion, national regulations, …
Strategy: broaden scope of market
Solutions
1.
2.
Context models
Automated assessment system &
Training program for assessors to be
come urgency handlers
15
Case: “Housing”
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Local government institution is responsible for
assignment of rental houses to applicants
Transparent assignment procedure
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two-weekly magazine with house offers
publication of results
Partially automated process
Existing databases of applicants and residences
Context models
16
Problem & opportunity
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Two sides of the same coin
Opportunity:
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a part of the business process in which it might be useful to
introduce knowledge technology
Problem:
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Context models
an opportunity, that is currently being perceived as a
problem in the organization
17
Organization boundary
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Sometimes difficult to define the scope of what is “the
organization”
Example in the housing domain:
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baseline organization: assignment office
includes applicants?
includes rental agencies?
Decide on variant and invariant parts
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Context models
invariant parts are assumed to be stable from the
development point of view
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OM-2: variant aspects
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refers to a single problem-opportunity area of OM-1
describes the subpart of the organization involved
describes the aspects that might change or be
affected by a knowledge-system solution
Context models
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Variant aspects OM-2
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structure
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structure chart of departments, groups, units
process
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(1)
decomposed into tasks plus dependencies
detailed in Worksheet OM-3
people
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staff members involved as actors or stakeholders
– decision makers, providers, users, customers
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Context models
not "actual" people but functional roles
20
Variant aspects OM-2
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resources
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information systems
equipment and materials
non-knowledge skills and competencies.
knowledge
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(2)
special resource in this context
detailed in Worksheet OM-4
culture and power
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Context models
"unwritten rules of the game”, styles of working and
communicating, informal relationships
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OM-2: ice-cream organization
analysis
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Example part of OM-2 analysis:
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Structure
General
director
Technical
director
Logistics
Technical Dept.
management management
Ice Cream
development
Context models
Personnel Marketing Finance
director & Sales director
director
Development Dept.
management
Quality
assurance
Manufacturing
management
Coldstore
& Warehouse
management
Information
& IT
management
Packaging
design
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Structure & people “Housing”
policy
depart ment
statistical analyst
staff member
direct orat e
director
deputy director
public
service
magazine editor
magazine producer
information officer
Context models
residence
assignment
comput er
support
data entry
assigner
DB administrator
system analyst
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Process “Housing”
primary
process
data entry
of applications
magazine
production
application
assessment
:residence
assignments
residence
assignment
Context models
secondary
process
statistical
analysis
policy
information
24
Remainder of OM-2 for
“Housing”
Organization model
Variant aspects: Worksheet OM-2
Resources
Existing database of applicants and residences
Priority calculator for computing a priority list
of applicants for a residence.
Knowledge
Assessment criteria: knowledge for judging
correctness of individual applications
Assignment rules: knowledge used for
selecting an applicant for a particular house.
Urgency rules: special rules and regulations for
urgent cases (e.g., handicapped people).
Culture & power
Hierarchical organization
Employees view the future with some trepidation
Management style: history as civil servant
Context models
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OM-3: Process Breakdown
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Key element => described in more detail
Fill-in for each task in the Process description
OM-3 elements:
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Context models
Task: name + identifier
Performed by: agent (People or Resource)
Where?: location in Structure
Knowledge required: list of Knowledge assets
Knowledge-intensive?: yes/no
Significance: qualitative value, e.g. five-point scale
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OM-3 example: breakdown of
ice-cream process
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In ice-cream product development the main
subprocesses are:
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product idea generation
feasibility phase
production and sales planning
implementation and role-out
post-launch review
All subprocesses are knowledge-intensive, but
feasibility and planning phases in particular
Context models
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Example OM-3 for “Housing”
Task
Performed by
Where
1. Magazine
production
Magazine
editor
2. Data entry
applications
KI?
Significance
Public service -
No
3
Data typist /
automated
telephone
Residence
assignment
-
No
2
3. Application
assessment
Assigner
Residence
assignment
Assessment
criteria
Yes
5
4. Residence
assignment
Assigner
Residence
Assignment
Assignment &
urgency rules
Yes
5
Context models
Knowledge
asset(s)
28
OM-4: Knowledge Assets
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details the "Knowledge" element of OM-2
coarse-grained description
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refined in task model and knowledge model
elements:
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Knowledge Asset: Name (OM-3)
Possessed by: Agent (OM-3)
Used in: Task ID (OM-3)
Right Form? Right Place? Right Time? Right Quality?
– yes/no + comments
Context models
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OM-4: knowledge assets for
ice-cream business process
Context models
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Knowledge asset “Housing”
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Knowledge asset:
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right form?
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“general residence-application norms”
no, should be also in electronic form
right place, time, quality?
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Context models
yes
31
Feasibility document contents
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One copy of Worksheet OM-1
For each problem/opportunity area: OM-2
For each task: OM-3
For each knowledge asset: OM-4
For each suggested solution: decision to "automate"
yes/no plus reasons
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Worksheet OM-5: checklist for this decision
Proposed actions
Context models
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Business Feasibility
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expected benefits
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tangible (economic) and intangible
expected added value
expected costs
comparison to possible alternative solutions
organizational changes required
economic and business risks and uncertainties
Context models
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Technical Feasibility
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complexity of knowledge/reasoning process
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critical aspects involved?
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time, quality, needed resources
measurable success factors
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availability of state-of-the-art methods
has it been done before?
tests for validity, quality and performance
complexity of user/system interaction
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Context models
availability of state-of-the-art methods
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Project Feasibility
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commitment from the agents and stakeholders
availability of resources in terms of time, budget,
equipment, staff
availablity of required knowledge and other
competencies
realistic expectations
adequate project organization and external
communication
Context models
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Proposed Actions
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recommended concrete steps for action
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Context models
List of focus areas
Target solution for focus area
Expected results and benefits
Required project actions
When to reconsider?
36
OM-5: feasibility decision document
for ice-cream example
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Business, technical and project feasibility
Proposed actions for solution direction
•Ice-cream case study:
•Clarification of knowledge bottlenecks achieved
•Different knowledge improvement scenarios outlined
•Requirements for technical and project feasibility stated
•Proposed actions:
•Prioritize knowledge improvement scenarios as next step
•….
Context models
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Feasibility “Housing”
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Automation of “application assignment”
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feasible from all perspectives
Actions
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Context models
application construction
job changes within assignment department
provide additional training
consider also resource transfer to computer dept.
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Case: social security services
(SSS)
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Problem-opportunity-context: see book
Problem:
laws and regulations are so complex
=> long time to reach a decision => backlog
=> social uproar => headlines in the papers
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Solution (a priori formulated by SSS management):
knowledge system stores the legal decision-making knowledge
=> backlog reduced
Context models
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SSS scope and feasibility
decision making
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Context analysis: see book
Solution: "KS for solving backlog problem"
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Business feasibility
– does not solve the problem as main task load is in archiving
– requires organizational changes
– status of people will change
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Technical/project feasibility
– state-of-the-art work
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Proposed actions
– redirect the project to simplify procedures for archiving and
reporting.
Context models
40
Next step of context modelling:
zooming in on tasks
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Task = subpart of a business process
goal-oriented value-adding activity
handles inputs and delivers desired outputs
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in a structured and controlled way
consumes resources;
requires (and provides) knowledge/skills
adheres to quality and performance criteria
carried out by responsible and accountable agents
Context models
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Task Model aspects
Information
Systems (3D)
View
Objects
Structure
(Data)
Managerial
View
Agents
(Sub)Function
and Flow
Time and
Control
TASK
MODEL
Performance
and Quality
Knowledge and
Competences
Resources
Goal and
Value
Context models
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TM-1: Task Analysis
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zoom in on a task
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link to BPR/BPA methods
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more detailed description than OM-3
task is part of business process
link to SE analysis model
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Context models
dependency and flow
data, function, control view on task
43
Task description: internal
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data dependency and data flow
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objects handled
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simple information model
timing & control
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preceding task, follow-up tasks
frequency, duration, when performed
constraints: pre- and post-conditions
Context models
44
TM-1: Top-level task model
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Fill in TM components (see TM Figure)
– Example: task decomposition and flow of feasibility phase
– Gives first-cut version for task layer of knowledge model
Marketing
brief
Develop
product
concept
Product
description
Produce
product
prototypes
Product
prototypes
Final
product
specification
Context models
(Iteratively) Revise
product description
and/or prototypes
Discuss
results with
marketing
Carry out
prototype tests
45
Data flow “Housing”
data entry
checking
applicant
Legend
application
data
application
(external)
actor
database of
residences &
applicants
assessment
application
valid
applications
processing
function
relevant
applications
rental
agency
free residence
assign
data store
assignment
assignments
Context models
data flow
46
Control flow “Housing”
data entry
checking
[data = incorrect]
application received
before deadline
garbage bin
[data = correct]
assessing
[decision = not eligible]
further
processing
[decision = eligible]
Context models
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Task description: external
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goal and value
agents involved
knowledge:
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other competencies and skills
resources
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list of knowledge items further detailed in TM-2
refinement of OM-2
quality and performance:
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Context models
yardsticks for measuring task execution
48
TM-2:
knowledge item description
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Possessed by: Agent
Used in:Task ID
Domain
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specialist field, discipline, branch of science or engineering,
professional community
Indicate nature, form and availability of knowledge
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Context models
tick if bottleneck
49
Characterizations of
knowledge items
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Nature
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Form
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formal, rigorous; empirical, quantitative; heuristic, rules of
thumb, .....
mind, paper, electronic, action skill, ...
Availability
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Context models
limitations in time, space, access, quality, form
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TM-2: Detailing of knowledge
items & bottlenecks
Ice-cream case:
 Knowledge item:
consumer desires
 Bottlenecks exist in:
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Context models
Nature: incomplete, tacit,
hard to verify
Form: in mind of marketers
only
Availability: limitations in
space and quality
51
Agent Model
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OM and TM => process/task perspective
AM: perspective of individual agents
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large part: rearrangement of information already in
other worksheets
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just a single worksheet
agent view useful for judging impact
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staff, software systems
See attitude matrix
important input for communication model
Context models
52
Agent Worksheet AM-1:
the “assigner” agent
Name
Assigner
Organization
Residence-assignment department
Involved In
3. Application assessment
4. Residence assignment
Communicates with
Database
Priority calculator
Knowledge
Assessment criteria
Assignment rules
Urgency rules
Other competencies
Ability to handle problematic non-standard
cases
Responsibilities
& constraints
Make sure that people are treated equally (no
favors). This has been a problem in the past
Context models
53
Final step: impacts and and
improvements document
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checklist in Worksheet OTA-1
measures for improvement accompany development
work
major issues for decision making:
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Context models
organizational changes recommended
measures for specific tasks and/or workers
improvements regarding use and availability of knowledge
is the expected result sufficient?
future directions
54
Impacts and Changes (1):
Organization as a whole
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Structure
Process
Resources
People
Knowledge
Culture and Power
Context models
55
Impacts and Changes (2):
Task/Agent-Specific
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comparison: future/current models
impact and change types:
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task lay-out
needed resources
performance and quality criteria
staffing, involved agents
individual positions, responsibilities, authority, constraints in task
execution
knowledge and competencies
communication
Context models
56
Proposed Actions
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improvements/changes in organization
accompanying measures
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training, facilities
further project action
when to reconsider
Context models
57
OTA-1: impacts and
improvements decisions
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Ice-cream case: processing scenario ranks best
Proposed actions:
– Develop processing KBS module
– Archive past formulations
– Structured knowledge management for knowledge sharing
Context models
58
Stakeholder-driven approach in
Unilever PARIS ice-cream project
Identify stakeholders
and project sponsors
Interview the
stakeholders
Develop factory
assessment approach
Feasibility study results
Assess factories
Follow-up
project plan
& agreement
System storyboards
Context models
59
Actors and stakeholders:
attitudes and commitments
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
Important guideline: always consider attitudes of
actors and stakeholders toward changes
Ask yourself: is there a sufficient basis to successfully
carry through proposed changes?
– Technique: stakeholder attitude matrix
– (EMS case, IEEE Intell. Syst. 1997)
Stakeholder/Solution
Hospital specialist
General Practitioner
EMS personnel
SQ
o
o
I
+
+
+
II
+
o
+
III
+
+
IV
+
+
V
+
-
VI
+
-
Consumer
-
+
+
+
+
o
+
(SQ = status quo)
Context models
60
Attitude matrix: internal
Sponsor/Solutions
SQ
I
II
Manager
System manager
Dispatcher
Paramedic
Driver
Consumer
-
o
o
o
+
+
o
+
+
o
+
Context models
III
IV
V
VI
o
o
+
+
o
+
+
+
o
+
o
+
o
+
+
+
o
+
+
61
Summary
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Organizational aspects: critical success factor
Envisaged systems must be well-integrated
Step 1: portfolio of solutions+ feasibility
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Step 2: zoom in and assess changes/measures

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
organization model
feasibility document
task, knowledge item, and agent descriptions
plan for organizational changes
Context analysis is wider applicable
Context models
62
Overall process of business
analysis in KE&M
OM-1
worksheet:
St art
problems,
solutions,
context
OM-3
worksheet:
OM-2
worksheet:
description of
organization
focus area
process
breakdown
OM-5
worksheet:
Int egrat e
Ref ine
Ref ine
OM-4
worksheet:
Int egrat e
[ If inf easible]
St op
Judge
Feasibility
(Decision
Document)
knowledge
assets
[ If f easible]
TM-1
worksheet:
TM-2
worksheet:
AM-1
worksheet:
task
analysis
knowledge item
analysis
agent
model
OTA-1
worksheet:
Int egrat e,
comparing bot h t he
old and new sit uat ions
Assess Impacts & Changes
(Decision Document)
Cont ext
Analysis
Ready
Context models
63
Exercise: knowledge workshop



Management group discussions, structured by using
worksheets OM1-5, TM1-2, OTA-1, as a self-assessment
instrument for management in own area of responsibility
Used by, e.g., Unilever and Dutch Tax Authority
In particular:

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
Focus on valuable business area or process, sketch the workflow
of this process, and list problem/opportunity portfolio
Identify the knowledge assets of importance to this process
Investigate whether there exists bottlenecks here (OM-4, TM-2)
Devise possible solutions and analyze their feasibility
– Problem/cause/solution QFD-type matrices
– Stakeholder attitude matrices

Context models
Take follow-up managerial action
64