Chapter 7
Social Process Theories:
Learning, Control and Reaction
Criminology 8th edition
Larry J. Siegel
© 2003 Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Social Process Theories
Theories which are based on the concept
that an individual’s socialization
determines the likelihood of criminality.
According to social process theories,
all people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the
potential to become delinquent or criminals.
Elements of family, peer group, school, and church
contribute to the socialization process.
The Influences of Peers,
Cliques and Crowds
• To what extent is our behavior influenced by others?
• Do all people affect our behavior to the same degree?
• Do different kinds of people have different kinds of effects on our behavior?
• How do these questions relate to delinquency and crime control?
Socialization Processes
of Society

Family relations

Education experience

Peer relations

Child abuse; sexual abuse; neglect

Interaction with authority figures

Institutions (church attendance and religious beliefs)
Questions
Does delinquency cause
educational failure?
Or,
Does educational failure
cause delinquency?
The Effects of Socialization
on Crime
 Social
learning theory suggests people learn
techniques of crimes from criminal peers.
 Social
control theory contends people are
controlled by their bonds to society.
 Social
reaction theory argues that society
contributes to criminality through the use of
labels.
Social Processes that Control
Human Behavior
Social Process Theories

Social learning theories: differential association
theory, differential reinforcement theory, and
theory of neutralization.

Social control theories: containment theory and
social bond theory.

Social reaction theory: labeling.
Social Learning Theory:
Differential Association

Sutherland and Cressey.

Criminal behavior and criminal techniques are learned. Learned
behavior is a byproduct of interacting with others and may vary
in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

Learned behavior begins within intimate personal groups –
which involves assimilating criminal techniques, attitudes,
motives, and rationalization.

Criminal behavior occurs when the definitions toward crime
outweigh the definitions against crime.
Differential Reinforcement Theory

Akers

Direct conditioning occurs when behavior is reinforced by rewards
and punishment.

Negative reinforcement over time

Applies the concepts of differential association with psychological
learning theory – behavior is influenced by those groups that
control reinforcement and punishment which defines normative
definitions, i.e., parents, significant others or groups.

Studies suggest a strong association between drug and alcohol
abuse and social learning variables.
Neutralization Theory

Matza and Sykes

Youth learn ways to neutralize moral restraints and
responsibility for antisocial behavior.

Stresses that youths’ learning of behavior is based
on rationalizations that enable them to neutralize
values and drift back and forth between accepted
social values and illegal behavior.
Questions
If criminal behavior is learned,
how do learning theorists account
for the origin of criminal definitions?
How do learning theorists explain spontaneous and
wanton acts of violence and damage?
Techniques of Neutralization
Social Control Theory
Control theories maintain
that all people have potential to become criminals
but that bonds to conventional society
prevent them from violating the law.
Social Control Theories

Reckless’ containment theory – a strong self-image
insulates a youth from criminogenic influences.

Hirshi’s social bond theory – onset of criminality is
linked to the weakening of social ties or bonds.

Kaplan – youths with poor self-concepts are more
likely to engage in anti-social behavior or criminal
activities as opposed to engaging in normative
groups.
Elements of the Social Bond
Commitment
Attachment
Criminal
Behavior
Belief
Involvement
Elements of the Social Bond
Hirschi’s Control Theory
MAJOR PREMISE
A person’s bond to society prevents him or her from
violating social rules. If the bond weakens,
the person is free to commit crime.
STRENGTHS
Explains the onset of crime; can apply to both middleand lower-class crime. Explains its theoretical
constructs adequately so they can be measured.
Has been empirically tested.
Testing Social Control Theory
Emprical studies revealed a strong support for
Hirschi’s control theory:
 Students
who had strong attachment to parents were
less likely to commit criminal acts.
 Commitment
to conventional values was indicative of
conventional behavior.
 Youths
involved in conventional activities were less
likely to engage in criminal behavior.
 Youths
involved in unconventional activities were
more delinquent prone.
Testing Social Control Theory
 Youths
with weak and distant relationships with
others tended toward delinquent behavior.
 Those
who shunned unconventional acts were
attached to their peers.
 Delinquents
and nondelinquents shared similar
beliefs about society.
 Recent
research shows attachments to peers,
school and family may be interrelated.
Opposing Views
of Social Control Theory

Some contend delinquents may be influenced by close
relationships with deviant peers and family members.

Not all elements of the bond are equal.

Many believe that social control theory cannot explain all
modes of criminality.

Bonds change over time and this is not accounted for.

Some contend that delinquency weakens bonds, not that
weakened bonds lead to delinquency.
SOCIAL REACTION THEORY
or LABELING THEORY
This theory holds that criminality is promoted
by becoming negatively labeled
by significant others,
in other words –
when people are labeled for their acts,
they organize their personalities around the labels.
The Labeling Process
Labeling Theory:
The Basis for Self-Concept
Decision
to Label
Creation
of a New
Identity
Detection
by the
Justice
System
Acceptance
of Labels
Initial
Criminal
Act
Deviance
Amplification
Question
According to the previous diagram,
is labeling a “cause” of crime
or,
the “effect” of crime?
Consequences of Labeling

Labels produce stigma

Condemnation is carried out in “ceremonies” such as trials
and media attention (degradation ceremonies)

Differential social control: Self-labeling involves one taking on
the attitudes and roles reflected in how a person views the
way others see them

Joining deviant cliques: Some labeled people may join cliques
and other outcast peers

Retrospective reading: refers to the reassessment of a
person’s past to fit a current generalized label or status

Dramatization of evil: Labels become a personal identity
Social Reaction Theory:
Differential Enforcement
This theory holds that the law is
differentially applied –
it favors those in power in a particular society.
Social Reaction Theory

Primary and Secondary Deviance
 Edwin
Lemert defined a norm violation with little
or no long-term influence as primary deviance.
 Secondary
deviance refers to a norm violation
that results in application of a negative label with
long-term consequences.
 The
process whereby secondary deviance pushes
offenders out of the mainstream of society is
referred to as deviance amplification.
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Is Labeling Theory Valid?

Contributions of Labeling
Theory:

Criticisms:

It is unable to specify
the conditions that
must exist before an
act or individual is
labeled deviant.

It identifies the role played
by social control agents in
crime causation.

It recognizes that
criminality is not a disease
of pathological behavior.

It fails to explain
differences in crime
rates.

It distinguishes between
criminal acts and criminal
careers.

It ignores the onset of
deviant behavior.
Research Reaction of Labeling Theory
 Evidence
supports the targets of labeling (poor
and powerless) are victimized by the law and
justice system.
 Contextual
discrimination: refers to judges
imposing harsher sentences on minorities.
 Empirical
evidence supports that negative labels
influence self-image.
 Cumulative
behaviors.
disadvantage: Provokes repeat
Social Process Theory
and Social Policy

Learning theories influence development of facilities to
“unlearn” criminality.

Control theories influence programs to increase bonds to
established values, like the Head Start program.

Labeling theories influence diversion and restitution
programs.

Restitution/restorative justice programs permit an
offender to repay the victim (and community) rather than
face the stigma of a formal judicial process.