Social Process Theory
 Based on the process of socialization
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The interactions people have with various organizations, institutions, and processes of society
Criminality is a function of the above
 All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become delinquents or criminals

Critical Elements of Socialization
 Family relations
 Divorce
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Family Deviance
 Parental efficacy
 Child Abuse and Crime
Educational Experience
 Peer Relations
 Institutional Involvement and Belief
 Religion

Effects of Socialization on Crime
 A positive self image, learning moral values, support of parents, peers, teachers, and neighbors can help to combat inducements to crime
 Living in deteriorated areas
 The more social problems encountered during the socialization process, the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties as they mature

Types of Social Process Theories
 Social learning theory
 Social control theory
 Social reaction (labeling) theory

Social Learning Theories
 Belief that crime is a product of learning the norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activity
 Can involve learning the techniques of crime
 Prominent social learning theories:
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Differential association theory
Differential reinforcement theory
Neutralization theory

Differential Association Theory
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Criminal behavior is learned
Learning is a by-product of interaction
Learning occurs within intimate groups
Criminal techniques are learned
Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives
Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning process
Criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values but it is not excused by those general needs and values because noncriminal behavior is also an expression of those same needs and values

Criticisms of Differential Association
Theory
 Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions
 Assumes criminal and delinquent acts are rational and systematic
 Tautological (circular in reasoning)

Differential Reinforcement Theory
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The same process is involved in learning both deviant and conventional behavior
A number of learning processes shape behavior
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Direct conditioning (differential reinforcement)
Negative reinforcement
People begin to evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with significant others and groups in their lives
Once people are accustomed to crime, their behavior can be reinforced by being exposed to deviant behavior models

Neutralization Theory
 The process of becoming a criminal is a learning experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to neutralize conventional values and drift
 Explains why many delinquents do not become adult criminals
 Explains why youthful law violators can participate in conventional behavior

Basics of Neutralization Theory
 Criminals sometimes voice guilt over their illegal acts
 Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding people
 Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they cannot
 Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity

Techniques of Neutralization
 Denial of responsibility
 Denial of injury
 Denial of the victim
 Condemnation of the condemners
 Appeal to higher loyalties

Are Learning Theories Valid?
 They make a significant contribution to our understanding of the onset of criminal behavior
 But still they are subject to criticism
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Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions
Fail to explain random acts of violence
There is little evidence that exists to substantiate that people learn techniques that enable them to become criminals before the actually commit crimes

Social Control Theory
 All people have the potential to violate the law
 Society presents many opportunities for illegal activity
 Truly is looking at why people obey the rules and do not commit crime
 Positives
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Explains the onset of crime
Can apply to both the middle and lower classes
Has been empirically tested

Why Do Some People Obey the
Rules?
 Self-control
 A strong moral sense that renders someone incapable of hurting others and violating social norms
 Commitment to conformity
 Develops with a strong commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes

Self Concept and Crime
 A strong self-image insulates a youth from the pressures and pulls of criminogenic influences in the environment
 Maladaptive social relations produce weak selfconcept and poor self-esteem
 These individuals are more at risk to crime

Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory
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Links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society
Assumes that everyone is potentially a law violator
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They are kept under control because they fear illegal behavior will damage their relationships
Without social bonds people are more likely to commit crime
The social bond has four main elements:
 Attachment
 Commitment
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Involvement
Belief

Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory
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Explains how criminal careers form based on destructive social interactions and encounters
 Interaction and interpretation are key
Behaviors that are considered criminal are highly subjective
Crime is defined by those in power
Not only are acts labeled, so too are people
Both positive and negative labels involve subjective interpretation of behavior
Explains society’s role in creating deviance
Explains why some juvenile offenders do not become adult criminals

The Labeling Process
 Initial Criminal Act
 Detection by the Criminal Justice System
 Decision to Label
 Creation of a New Identity
 Acceptance of Labels
 Deviance Amplification

Consequences of Labeling
 Labels produce a stigma
 Labeled individuals may join deviant cliques
 After someone is labeled, people begin to reconstruct the culprit’s identity so the act and the label become understandable
 Dramatization of evil

Primary vs. Secondary Deviance
 Primary deviance is a norm violation or crime with little or no long-term influence on the violator
 Secondary deviance is a norm violation or crime that comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents, who apply a negative label with longterm consequences for the violator’s selfidentity and social interactions

Contributions of Social Reaction
(Labeling) Theory
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Identifies the role played by social control agents in crime causation
Recognizes that criminality is not a disease or pathological behavior
Distinguishes between criminal acts (primary deviance) and criminal careers (secondary deviance)
Contributes to understanding crime because of its focus on interaction as well as the situation surrounding the crime

Social Process Theories and
Public Policy
 Have had a major influence on policy-making since the 1950s
 Promote conventional lines of behavior
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Focus on the family and schools to strengthen bonds
Reconfigure an offender’s self-image
 Diversion and restitution programs