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The normal function of the human body
is compared to an organized machine
 The machine malfunctions, disease
occurs
 Anatomy: study of form and structure
 Physiology: study of processes
 Pathophysiology: study of how disease
occurs and body’s response

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
Four basic properties of life:
› Reception
 The ability of the organism to control its actions
and respond to changes in the environment
› Metabolism
 The process of taking in and using nutrients to
produce energy and growth
› Reproduction
 The ability to reproduce offspring to continue the
species
› Organization
 How the organism is divided into distinct parts to
perform these functions
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
Body structures are organized on five levels:
› Cells

The smallest units of life
› Tissues

Combinations of similar cells
› Organs

Collections of tissues working together to perform a
function
› A body system

Consists of organs that work together to provide a
major body function
› An organism

Being that results when the body systems work
together to maintain life
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Basic substance of life
 Made of ordinary elements (e.g.,
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen)
 Scientists can combine these elements,
but not create life

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
Major structures of a cell are called
organelles
› Nucleus
 Controls activity of the cell
 Directs reproduction
› Cytoplasm
 Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts
 Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell
› Mitochondria
 Produces the energy used for cellular processes
› Cell membrane
 Surrounds the cell
 Controls which substances enter and leave the cell
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› Lysosomes
 Helps break down, or digest, molecules
› Ribosomes
 Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
 Work to produce protein for the cell structures
› Golgi apparatus
 Makes glycoproteins, which help transport
proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell
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Asexual reproduction process used
by most cells
 Different types of cells reproduce at
different rates
 Process of mitosis—see Figure 9-9
in text

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Protoplasm is basic substance of life
 Protoplasm forms structural units called
cells
 Cells combine to form tissue
 Tissues combine to form organs
 Organs and other parts combine to
form systems
 Systems work together to create miracle
of human body

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
The tendency of a cell or the whole
organism to maintain a state of balance
› Generally refers to maintaining constancy of
the “internal milieu” or fluid surrounding cells
of the organisms
 Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up
internal environment is kept constant
 Molecules pass in and out of the cell to
maintain balance
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
Physiological components of
homeostasis or state of balance:
 Body
temperature
 Gas exchange
 pH values
 Water and ion balance
 Volume and pressure of fluid
 Waste removal
 Nutrient intake
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
Electrolytes are compounds made of
charged particles called ions
› Ions can conduct electrical current in water
or in cytoplasm of cell
 Positive charge (cation) creates an acid
 Negative charge (anion) creates a base

Different electrolytes also have special
functions
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› pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much
acid or base is present
 Each tissue has a normal pH
 Cells do not function properly if normal pH is
not maintained for that area of the body
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
Four main groups of tissue:
› Epithelial tissue
 Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the
surfaces of cavities and organs
› Connective tissue
 Formed by a protein, includes soft tissue such
as fat and blood cells and hard tissues such as
bones, ligaments, and cartilage
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› Muscle tissue
 Made of protein fibers, has the unique
property of shortening to produce movement
› Nervous tissue
 Composed largely of specialized cells called
neurons
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Physiology is the study of the functions of
the body
 Body system

› Group of related organs
Body systems together accomplish
functions necessary to maintain and
support life
 There are 12 body systems

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 Integumentary
system covers the body
and protects other body systems
 Cardiovascular system transports oxygen
and nutrients to all body parts and
removes waste products
 Circulatory system includes the blood
and lymph that move throughout the
body
 Respiratory system exchanges gases
between the air and blood
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



Muscular system allows the body to
move and controls movements within the
body
Skeletal system provides body support
and protection
Digestive system processes food and
eliminates food waste
Urinary system filters the blood and
removes liquid wastes
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


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Endocrine system coordinates body
cavities through hormones
Nervous system regulates the
environment and directs the activities of
other body systems
Sensory system perceives the
environment and sends messages to and
from the brain
Reproductive system provides for human
reproduction
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
Standard position of the body used to
describe the location of the anatomy
› Person is in an erect standing position
 Mouth closed
 Eyes and head facing forward
 Feet slightly apart with toes facing forward
 Arms are close to the body and the palms are
facing forward with fingers extended
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
•
•
•
•
•
•
Directional orientation explains a particular
view of a person.
Medial refers to the middle of the body.
Lateral refers to the sides of the body.
Superior, or cephalic, refers to a location
near the head.
Inferior, or caudal, refers to a location near
the feet.
Anterior, or ventral, refers to the front of the
human body.
Posterior, or dorsal, refers to the back of the
human body.
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Directional planes are views of imaginary
lines sliced through a person.
• A sagittal section slices the body vertically
into left and right sections.
• A midsagittal section slices the body into
equal left and right halves.
• A frontal, or coronal, section slices the body
vertically into anterior and posterior
sections.
• A transverse section slices the body
horizontally into inferior and superior
sections.

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
Planes are used to describe the body
› Three planes:
 Coronal or frontal
 Separates the front and back of the body
 Transverse
 Divides the upper and lower body
 Sagittal
 Divides the body into right and left sides
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› Location of organs is described in relation to
these planes:







Inferior (below)
Superior (above)
Medial (close to)
Lateral (away from)
Anterior or ventral (in front of)
Posterior or dorsal (behind)
Other terms used to a point where one organ
attaches to another
 Proximal (close to)
 Distal (away from)
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
Five body cavities:
› Thoracic
 Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and
major blood vessels
› Abdominal
 Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas,
intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and
kidneys
› Pelvic
 Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and
rectum
› Cranial
 Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands
› Spinal
 Houses the spinal cord and nerves
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
Abdominal and pelvic cavities are
described in terms of regions
› Nine regions:
 Right hypochondriac
 Epigastric
 Left hypochondriac
 Right lumbar
 Umbilical
 Left lumbar
 Right inguinal
 Hypogastric
 Left inguinal
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
Four quadrants:
› Right upper
› Right lower
› Left upper
› Left lower
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
Cell reproduction
› Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to
reproduce, creating an identical replica with the
same chromosomes
 Each cell (except gametes) contains 46
chromosomes
 All chromosomes (except sex chromosome x and
y) are paired and called homologous autosomes

Heredity
› Heredity is the passing on of genetic information
that determines the characteristics of an
individual person
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
Meiosis
› Cell divides into two parts with only one half
of the chromosomes
› Part of the reproduction process
› Results in the formation of sex cell (gametes)
 Fertilization is the combination of two gametes
with chromosomes from different parents into
one cell
 Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the
chromosome of either parent
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
Heredity
› Heredity is the passing on of genetic
information that determines the
characteristics of an individual person
› Genes contain the hereditary information in
the cell
 Made up of protein chains in a molecule
called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
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
Chromosomes
› Threadlike strands of DNA
› Contain between 50,000 and 100,000 genes
 Genotype
 Configuration of genetic information in the
chromosomes
 Phenotype
 Trait or appearance that results from the genotype
 Dominant gene
 Recessive gene
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 Homozygous
 Two genes alike on the chromosome pair
 Heterozygous
 Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair
› Genetic information carried on all
chromosomes is responsible for
 The development of all body cells
 Formation of tissues, organs, and body
systems
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
Genetic disorders
› Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause
many disorders

Cancer
› The uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells
that tend to spread (metastasize) and
invade the tissue around them
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
Genetic engineering
› 3,000+ disorders are known to result from
genetic abnormalities
› Advanced techniques and procedures can
now identify abnormal genes in the unborn
fetus
 Chorionic villus sampling
 Preimplantation diagnosis
 Gene splicing
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
Cancer treatments
› Immunotherapy
 Involves using:
 Chemicals that are isolated from bacteria infected
with the cancer
 Killed suspensions of bacteria
 Biological substances that harm tumors:




Interferon
Interleukin
Tumor necrosis factors
Growth factors
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
Cancer treatments
› Lasers
 Destroy cancerous cells
 Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)
› Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)
 Used in combination with radiation to treat
some tumors
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