Meeting the Needs of
English Language Learners
in Reading First
Classrooms
Michael C. McKenna
University of Virginia
Today’s Goals





Examine the nature of the challenge
Explore theory and research
Identify effective strategies
Discuss an action plan at the district,
school and classroom levels
Learn about Georgia’s ESOL program,
regulations, and available resources
Some Common Terms
and Acronyms
 Limited English Proficiency (LEP)
 English-Language Learner (ELL)
 English as a Second Language (ESL)
 English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
 English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL)
 First (Home) Language (L1)
 Second Language (L2)
 Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL)
Some Common Terms
and Acronyms
The Plight
of ELLs
How many Englishlanguage learners are
in Georgia schools?
?
ELLs in Georgia Schools
From 1993 to 2004, the number of
English language learners in Georgia
rose from 11,877 to 59,126 – an
increase of 397.8%.
Source: National Center for English Language Acquisition
More Georgia Stats . . .
Public school students in LEP Programs
4.3%
Hispanic students
6.9%
Asian/Pacific Islander
2.5%
Source: NAEP, 2005
How well are ELLs
learning to read?
Some Georgia Stats . . .
Percent of Georgia Fourth Graders
Reading below the “Basic” Level
60
50
40
30
20
White
Black
Hispanic
Asian
10
0
Source: NAEP, 2005
Are things better
elsewhere?
U.S. v. Georgia at Grade 4
Percent of Hispanic Fourth Graders
Reading below the “Basic” Level
100
75
54
56
Georgia
U. S.
50
25
0
Source: NAEP, 2005
Nevada REA Study
In a Nevada REA study using PALS Composite Scores
(Oral Reading in Context plus Spelling, plus Word Recognition)
Percentage Below PALS Benchmark
Children
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
Native English Speakers
20
18
22
ELLs
56
51
57
– Helman, 2005
Nevada REA Study
– Helman, 2005
What types of programs
are used to meet the needs
of ELLs?
There are several.
Four Types of ELL Programs
Type
Characteristics
Outcome
L1-only
L1 only is spoken. Children learn to
read in L1. (Rare in U.S.)
L1 literacy develops, but
spoken and written
English do not
Transitional
Bilingual
L1 is exclusively used at first, but
transition to English is made as
soon as possible.
L1 literacy jeopardized
in transition, but
research favors it over
English only.
Two-way
Bilingual
Equal time to L1 and English. Half
the children speak each. Parents of
English speakers desire their
children learn L1. (Rare in U.S.)
Reading and writing in
both languages develop
for both groups.
English-only
(Immersion)
Only English is spoken.
Teacher provides limited support to
ELLs. (Most common program type
in U.S.)
English slowly develops
Reading growth slowed
L1 withers since literacy
is never attained in L1
– Tabors & Snow, 2002
Which type of ELL program is best?
Let’s look at two recent
research summaries.
Slavin and Cheung’s 2005 Meta-analysis of 17 Studies1
Program Type
Studies in Support
Immersion
0
(English only)
Bilingual
(Both two-way and
transitional were included)
1Five
14
studies reported no significant difference.
Bob Slavin
and friend
Developing
Literacy in
English-Language
Learners
Report
of the
National Literacy Panel
on Language-Minority Children
May 2006
Tim Shanahan
Diane August
Key Findings
 In available studies, children in bilingual
programs did at least as well as those
in English-only programs.
 Overall, a moderate effect size was
observed across studies, favoring
bilingual instruction.
 Moreover, ELLs maintained their first
language to a greater extent.
Some Questions We Can’t Yet Answer
 If we teach L1 reading and writing, how soon is it safe
to transition to English?
 Does teaching higher levels of L1 reading make
learning to read English any quicker?
 How proficient must an ELL become in spoken English
before reading instruction should begin?
 How long can reading instruction in English be
delayed for ELLs before their reading
development is jeopardized?
– Tabors & Snow, 2002
Key Findings
 Learning English is easier for ELL children aged 89 with literacy skills in L1 than for children
aged 5-6 without L1 literacy skills.
 Immersion programs are not significantly better
than programs in which L1 is used.
 Bilingual children outperform monolingual children
on metalinguistic tasks through age 6.
 Oral proficiency in L2 is not a strong predictor of
reading proficiency in L2 (due to other factors).
(Garcia, 2005)
Key Findings
 L2 teacher read-alouds tend to be ineffective.
 Prior knowledge often disadvantages ELLs.
 Middle and high school bilinguals tend to use the
same comprehension strategies in either
language.
 Abler bilinguals tend to “translate” more difficult
material as they read, to use cognates in
confronting unfamiliar words, and to code
switch between sentences (i.e., reflect on
meaning in L1).
(Garcia, 2005)
Key Findings
 Close captioning can help as long as a certain
threshold in L2 has been attained.
 Culturally responsive teaching (through which
teachers learn about the L2 culture and use
this knowledge) can be helpful.
(Garcia, 2005)
Second
Language
Acquisition
What happens to young
children who are suddenly
immersed in an Englishspeaking environment?
What happens to young
children who are suddenly
immersed in an Englishspeaking environment?
They go through
four phases.
Four Phases of Transition to
Spoken English
1. ELLs use L1, expecting to be understood.
– They are often not understood, however.
2. ELLs grow silent.
– They realize L1 is not working for them.
3. ELLs begin using telegraphic and formulaic language.
– Telegraphic Examples:
Object names, counting
– Formulaic Examples:
Catch phrases (“Excuse me,” “I don’t know”)
4. ELLs gradually learn to use English productively.
– They blend formulaic with telegraphic speech
Examples: “I do a ice cream,” “I got a big”
– Tabors & Snow, 2002
Two Types of Oral English Proficiency
What kind is it?
What can a child do?
Conversational
(Social)
• Communicate with
peers
• Use gestures & body
language to aid and
complement language
Academic
• Comprehend oral
instruction
• Comprehend content
materials
How long does it
take to acquire?
About
2 years
5-7 years
– Adapted from Drucker, 2003
Reading and Language Development of a Native Speaker
Foundation
of Spoken
English Develops
Reading Adds to
the Foundation
Reading Builds on
This Foundation
Reading and Language Development of an
ELL in an English-Only Program
Foundation
of Spoken
English Is Limited
Foundation
of Spoken
Home Language
Is Stronger
Reading and Language Development of an
ELL in an English-Only Program
Foundation
of Spoken
English Is Limited
Reading Must
Develop together
with Spoken English
Foundation
of Spoken
Home Language
Is Stronger
Reading Instruction
In Home Language
Is Not Provided
Reading and Language Development of an
ELL in an English-Only Program
Foundation
of Spoken
English Is Limited
Reading Must
Develop together
with Spoken English
Foundation
of Spoken
Home Language
Is Stronger
Reading Instruction
In Home Language
Is Not Provided
Reading Growth
Far Slower than
English-speakers
Home Language
Spoken Proficiency
Declines
The Universal Grammar
 A “hard-wired” system for oral language
 Humans use this linguistic system to acquire L1
 UG has 3 components (lexicon, rules, phonology)
 The UG may be modular in nature (i.e., the 3
components may work independently)
Adapted from DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
How L1 Affects Learning L2
 Learning a new word in L2 requires access to
concepts stored in L1 (except for fluent
bilinguals)
 L1 phonology influences L2 pronunciation
DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
animal
mammal
“meow”
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
gato
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
gato
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
gato
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
mamífero
“meow”
gato
cat
4 legs
cuatro
piernas
animal
doméstico
/kat/
pet
lion
león
c-a-t
Should ELLs be taught
English directly or indirectly?
Explicit vs. Implicit Learning
 Most research supports explicit learning, but
these studies are short-term.
 “Formulas” are words and chunks deliberately
memorized – an example of explicit learning.
 Practice is required to make explicit knowledge
more accessible and automatic.
 Explicit teaching can “jump start” SLA, followed
by providing conditions for long-term implicit
learning.
DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
Explicit vs. Implicit Learning
 Implicit learning is more difficult for adults
“because of restrictions on their implicit
learning capacities” (p. 444)
 L2 learners may not apply explicit knowledge
• unless they know the rules well,
• care to apply them, and
• have the time it takes to do so
(Krashen’s view)
 Use of explicit knowledge can be automatized,
but this takes time and practice and may
even then not be generalized to other
situations.
DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
The Competition Model
 L1 plays a key role in acquiring and processing L2.
 Learner will use L1 grammar to acquire L2.
 Research is limited in that experimental conditions
oversimplify actual language use.
DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
Individual Differences
 Aptitude
• Difficulties in defining; new measures clearly needed
• But research validates the concept
 Age
• Puberty remains a key point in SLA
• But notion of a “critical period” for SLA is still debated
• Usually assumed to be 6-16 years of age
• May involve a shift from implicit to explicit learning
• Neuroimaging confirms that L2 is represented differently
DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
Individual Differences
 Working Memory
• Two constructs:
1. Phonological short-term memory (STM)
digit span, etc.
2. Reading Span Task (RST)
word recall from sentences
• Studies are inconclusive, perhaps due to measures
DeKeyser & Juffs (2005)
The Input Hypothesis
The only necessary and sufficient condition for SLA is
comprehensible input. Learners at stage i will move to i
+ 1 if and when they understand input containing i + 1.
Steven Krashen (1982, 1985)
But studies of speaking and writing cast doubt on the
input hypothesis.
(Swain, 2005)
The Output Hypothesis
Producing L2 in writing and/or speaking is essential to
learning it.
Last few decades have seen a shift for output as
product to output as process. (See p. 480.)
Three possible roles for output in L2 learning:
1. Noticing/Triggering Function
2. Hypothesis Testing Function
3. Metalinguistic (Reflective) Function
(Swain, 2005)
Noticing/Triggering Function
“the activity of producing the target language may
prompt second language learners to recognize
consciously some of their linguistic problems” (p. 474,
original emphasis)
The student may “notice the gap” in their proficiency
and try to fill it.
(Swain, 2005)
Hypothesis Testing Function
Output (speaking or writing) may be a “trial run.”
When a teacher or peer seeks clarification or requests
confirmation, the L2 learner tends to modify the output
in the future.
Lesson for teachers: Push ELLs to produce correct
formulations of English, rather than accepting incorrect
output simply because the meaning is clear.
Writing is a good opportunity to “push” for correctness.
(Swain, 2005)
Metalinguistic (Reflective) Function
“[U]sing language to reflect on language produced by
others or the self mediates second language learning.”
(p. 478)
This is a Vygotskyan perspective
“Psychological processes emerge first in collective
behavior, in cooperation with other people, and only
subsequently become internalized as the individual’s own
possessions” (Stetsenko & Arievitch, 1997, p. 161).
Collaborative writing is especially conducive to reflecting
on output.
(Swain, 2005)
Implications
for
Classroom
Instruction
So where do teachers start?
Most cores have an ELL
resource handbook and
related materials. Start
there. But let’s think
about general advice.
So where do teachers start?
Let’s look at some key
differences between
Spanish and English.
Spanish vs. English
Consonants
Pronounced the Same
c
l
m
n
s
Pronounced Differently
d
h
j
v
sh
r
z
Spanish vs. English
Consonants Clusters Not Heard in Spanish
st
sp
sk/sc
sm
sl
sn
sw
tw
qu
scr
spl
spr
str
squ
th
Spanish vs. English
Spanish vowels always have the same sound:
English
Long a
Spanish
e
Example
Pedro
Long e
Long i
Long o
i
ai
o
sí
jai-lai
no
Long u
Short o
u
a
usted
Pablo
Spanish vs. English
Short vowels are hard for Spanishspeaking children because most of
these phonemes do not exist in
Spanish!
Spanish vs. English
What are the implications of
these differences for
acquiring (and teaching)
phonemic awareness and
phonics?
Phonemic Awareness for
Spanish-Speaking ELLs
 Children’s knowledge of Spanish phonology may
influence how they acquire phonemic awareness in
English.
They may find it hard at first to distinguish phonemes not
heard in Spanish (e.g., v-b, s-sp, ch-sh).
 Instruction in specific pairs has been shown to have
positive results.
National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children, 2006
Phonemic Awareness for
Spanish-Speaking ELLs
 Phonemic awareness in Spanish translates into English.
That is, children can do similar tasks (segmenting,
blending, etc.).
 However, the specific phonemes are often different.
 These differences are predictable.
 Well-planned teaching leads to equal levels of phonemic
awareness for ELLs and native English speakers.
Gersten & Geva, 2005
Phonics for Spanish-Speaking ELLs
 Begin with sounds that English and Spanish share.
 Start with vowels and consonants that represent sounds
that are the same as or similar to the sounds they
represent in Spanish (listed in previous slides).
 Use your knowledge of Spanish to interpret misspellings.
(Example: da might be written for the)
 If you’re not comfortable with Spanish, ask the child to
read what s/he has written and listen for letter-sound
correspondences.
Helman, 2004
Phonics for Spanish-Speaking ELLs
 A pronunciation error may reflect knowledge of Spanish.
Example: Saying seat for sit is common when the
child has some reading ability in Spanish. It might
also be an attempt to come as close as possible
using a Spanish vowel sound.
 Use low-stress activities to practice pronunciations.
Examples: choral reading, echo reading, sound
sorting of pictures, poetry, songs
Helman, 2004
Phonics for Spanish-Speaking ELLs
 Try using Venns and word walls to underscore
similarities and differences in letter-sound
correspondences. (See previous slides.)
 Developmental spelling inventories can provide useful
information about phonics skills (e.g., the one in
Words Their Way by Bear et al.).
 Short vowels should be taught before long vowels.
Helman, 2004
Phonics for Spanish-Speaking ELLs
 Conduct think-alouds comparing English and Spanish.
“Teachers may verbalize their thinking in a modeled writing
activity as they ponder which sounds they hear in a tricky
word. They may even model being confused and selfcorrecting based on a Spanish sound.” (p. 458)
Helman, 2004
A good source for Spanish phonology concerns . . .
Which instructional techniques are
consistent with theory and research?
The Output Hypothesis suggests that
teachers provide many opportunities for
ELLs to talk and write.
Doing so also provides a window on their
development of their English.
A central way for teachers to assess the
learning and understanding of their ELLs is to
give them myriad opportunities to write and talk
during lessons. When ELLs are silent during
extended periods of lesson times, it is not
possible to know if or how much they are
learning from lessons.
– Brock & Raphael, 2005, p. 51
Sheltered Instruction (SI)
“Sheltered instruction is an approach for
teaching content to English learners in
strategic ways that make the subject matter
concepts comprehensible while promoting
the students’ English language
development.”
– Echevarria, Vogt, & Short (2004, p. 2)
Sheltered Instruction (SI)
 Content and language objectives are
interwoven.
 Most commonly applied at grades 4 and
higher
Sheltered Instruction (SI)
 Techniques often used in SI:
 Visual aids
 Modeling and demonstrations
 Graphic organizers
 Vocabulary overviews
 Predictions
 Cooperative learning
 Peer tutoring
 Multicultural content
Modified Discussions
 Use frequent rewordings.
 Put key terms on the board as you speak.
 Translate key terms if you know them.
 Speak clearly and at a moderate pace.
 Use frequent review and summaries.
 Pronounce key terms precisely.
 Refer to pictures and diagrams.
– McKenna & Robinson, 2005
Word Webs
 Connecting concepts in a web diagram
places few demands on English literacy.
 Relationships among words are stressed.
 These relationships are made visible and
concrete.
 Webs can be used with fiction or nonfiction.
– Farnan, Flood & Lapp, 1994
Scaffolded Reading Experiences
(SREs)
What is an SRE?
“a set of prereading, during-reading,
and postreading activities specifically
designed to assist English-language
learners in successfully reading,
understanding, and learning from a
particular selection.”
– Fitzgerald & Graves (2004, p. 15)
Scaffolded Reading Experiences
 The best activities are often those
that research has shown to be
beneficial to native speakers as well.
 Many options are available for use before,
during and after reading. You must be
selective. Consider the nature of the
selection and the needs of your ELLs.
Possible SRE Prereading Activities
 Using motivational approaches
 Pointing out links to students’ lives
 Building or activating prior knowledge
Let’s consider an example of how
important this can be for ELLS.
It was the day of the big party.
Mary wondered if Johnny would like
a kite. She ran to her bedroom,
picked up her piggy bank, and shook
it. There was no sound.
– Eskey, 2002, p. 6
What prior knowledge must the reader have in order
to comprehend this brief passage?
Eskey, D.E. (2002). Reading and the teaching of L2 reading. TESOL Journal,
11(1), 5-9.
Possible SRE Prereading Activities
 Using motivational approaches
 Pointing out links to students’ lives
 Building or activating prior knowledge
 Providing text-specific knowledge
 Preteaching vocabulary
 Preteaching concepts
 Prequestioning, predicting, and direction setting
 Suggesting strategies
 Using students’ native language
 Involving ELL communities, parents, siblings
Possible SRE During-Reading Activities
 Silent reading
 Reading to students
 Supported reading
 Oral reading by students
 Modifying the text
Possible SRE Postreading Activities
 Questioning
 Discussion
 Writing
 Drama
 Artistic, graphic, and nonverbal activities
 Application and outreach activities
 Building connections
 Reteaching
An SRE builds on a long tradition of
nesting a reading selection in before,
during and after activities.
Let’s examine which of the major
lesson formats seem most promising.
Before
During
After
Major Lesson Formats
 Directed Reading Activity (DRA)
 Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA)
 K-W-L
 Listen-Read-Discuss (L-R-D)
Before
During
After
DRA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
complete tasks
set by teacher
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
DRA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
complete tasks
set by teacher
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
DRA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
complete tasks
set by teacher
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
DRA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
complete tasks
set by teacher
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
5 Steps in a Classic DRA
1. Background (vocabulary, facts)
2. Focus (set specific purposes)
3. Silent Reading
4. Discussion
5. Skills, Extension, Enrichment
5 Steps in a Classic DRA
1. Background (vocabulary, facts)
2. Focus (set specific purposes)
3. Silent Reading
4. Discussion
5. Skills, Extension, Enrichment
Before
5 Steps in a Classic DRA
1. Background (vocabulary, facts)
2. Focus (set specific purposes)
3. Silent Reading
4. Discussion
5. Skills, Extension, Enrichment
Before
During
5 Steps in a Classic DRA
1. Background (vocabulary, facts)
2. Focus (set specific purposes)
3. Silent Reading
4. Discussion
5. Skills, Extension, Enrichment
Before
During
After
DR-TA
Before
During
After
DR-TA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
test their own
predictions
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
DR-TA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
test their own
predictions
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
DR-TA
Facts
Vocabulary
Text structure
Students read to
test their own
predictions
Discussion
Writing
Before
During
After
K-W-L
Before
During
After
K-W-L
Students
Students read to
Discussion
brainstorm
find out what
of what they
what they Know they Want to know have Learned
Before
During
After
K-W-L
Students
Students read to
Discussion
brainstorm
find out what
of what they
what they Know they Want to know have Learned
Before
During
After
K-W-L
Students
Students read to
Discussion
brainstorm
find out what
of what they
what they Know they Want to know have Learned
Before
During
After
L-R-D
Before
During
After
L-R-D
Teacher fully
Students read to
presents text
complete tasks
content
set by teacher
(Children might
listen to Spanish
version)
Before
During
Discussion
After
L-R-D
Teacher fully
Students read to
presents text
complete tasks
content
set by teacher
(Children might
listen to Spanish
version)
Before
During
Discussion
After
L-R-D
Teacher fully
Students read to
presents text
complete tasks
content
set by teacher
(Children might
listen to Spanish
version)
Before
During
Discussion
Writing
After
Which of these formats seem best
suited to the needs of ELLs?
DRA
DR-TA
K-W-L
L-R-D
Might the issue depend on the age
and English proficiency of the child?
Language Experience Approach (LEA)
 Teacher plans a group experience, such as a
field trip, demonstration, etc.
 Students afterward dictate a passage based on
the shared experience.
 Teacher writes as students dictate.
 Dictated passage becomes the basis of
discussion and a reading lesson.
 LEA controls for prior knowledge differences,
although unpredictable cultural interpretations
can occur.
– Drucker, 2003
Discussions in Small Groups
 ELLs are sometimes intimidated into
silence in whole-class settings.
 They are more likely to talk in small
groups.
 Schedule small-group discussions with
group make-up including both ELLs
and native speakers.
– Brock & Raphael,
2005
Shared Reading
 Teacher reads aloud
an enlarged text
that all students
can see.
 Students can see text
as it is discussed.
 Teacher can point
to key words, etc.
Paired Reading
 Teacher pairs ELLs with native speakers.
 Students read to each other, with native
speaker providing support.
 Could be tied to repeated readings, where
native speaker reads a brief passage
and ELL reads the same passage.
Building Prior Knowledge
 Teacher tries to anticipate limitations of
prior knowledge.
 What does the author assume the child
knows and that the child may not.
 Look for ways to build prior knowledge
quickly and coherently.
– Drucker, 2003
Audio Books
 Teacher provides a tape of the reading
selection, perhaps in a listening center.
 ELLs follow along as they listen.
 A minimal level of reading ability is
required for this approach to be
effective.
– Drucker, 2003
Teacher Read-Alouds
 Read-alouds can be planned with ELLs in mind.

5 steps used by Hickman et al.:
1. Preview story and 3 new words. Give
Spanish equiivalents.
2. Read the book aloud. Focus on literal and
inferential comprehension.
3. Reread, focusing on the 3 words.
4. Extend comprehension, focusing on
deeper understanding of words.
5. Summarize the book.
– Hickman, Pollard-Durodola, & Vaughn, 2004
Multicultural Books
 These are likely to require less
background building.
 They build confidence and they value the
ELLs’ home culture.
 Such books make good read-alouds!
– Drucker, 2003
Selected Internet Resources
Internet TESL Journal
http://iteslj.org/
its-online
http://www.its-online.com/
English-to-Go
http://www.english-to-go.com/
Online Translator
http://www.worldlingo.com/en/products_services/
worldlingo_translator.html
More Internet Resources
Barahona Center
http://www.csusm.edu/csb/
Georgia ESOL Program
http://public.doe.k12.ga.us/ci_iap_esol.aspx
Office of English Language Acquisition
(OELA)
http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/index.html?src=oc
National Clearinghouse for English
Language Acquisition (NCELA)
http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/
Forming an
Action Plan
What can we do at the
district, school, and
classroom levels to meet
the needs of ELLs?
LEA
Schools
Teachers
At the District Level
 Start (or improve) your record keeping system
 Stay updated on programs
 http://public.doe.k12.ga.us/ci_iap_esol.aspx
 Coordinate PD across schools that serve ELLs
 Lead efforts to attract bilingual teachers
 Explore transitional bilingual programs
 Establish active links with the Latino community
 Recommend that parents turn on captioning
At the School Level
 Generally, foster cultural awareness
 Specifically, provide PD in culturally responsive teaching
 Acquire bilingual and multicultural books
 Hire bilingual teachers and paraprofessionals
 Host community-building activities for Latino parents
 Form teacher study groups
 Locate and disseminate professional resources
At the Classroom Level
 Seek the Georgia ESOL Endorsement
 http://www.glc.k12.ga.us/pandp/esol/certif.htm
 Learn to apply scientifically-based instructional approaches
 Form needs-based groups with English proficiency in mind
 Learn conversational Spanish
Who me? Learn Spanish?
Why not? It will not only
help you meet the needs
of ELLs, but it will deepen
your understanding of
English. As the greatest
writer in German once put
it . . .
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)
Those who know
nothing of foreign
languages know
nothing of their own.
Suggested Readings
Brock, C.H., & Raphael, T.E. (2005). Windows to language, literacy, and culture:
Insights from an English-language learner. Newark, DE: IRA.
Drucker, M.J. (2003). What reading teachers should know about ESL learners.
The Reading Teacher, 57, 22-29.
Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2003). Sheltered content instruction: Teaching
English-language learners with diverse abilities (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn
& Bacon.
Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D.J. (2004). Making content comprehensible for
English learners: The SIOP model (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Helman, L.A. (2004). Building on the sound system of Spanish: Insights from the
alphabetic spellings of English-language learners. The Reading
Teacher, 57, 452-460.
Helman, L.A. (2005). Using assessment results to improve teaching for Englishlanguage learners. The Reading Teacher, 58, 668-677.
Hickman, P., Pollard-Durodola, S., & Vaughn, S. (2004). Storybook reading:
Improving vocabulary and comprehension for English-language
learners. The Reading Teacher, 57, 720-730.
Suggested Readings
Shanahan, T., & August, D. (Eds.). (2006). Developing literacy in Englishlanguage learners. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Tabors, P.O., & Snow, C.E. (2002). Young bilingual children and early literacy
development. In S.B. Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of
early literacy research (Vol. 1, pp. 159-178). New York: Guilford.