Women of Pompeii
and Herculaneum
Problems of Evidence
The amount of tangible evidence on women in the cities of Vesuvius is
limited and fragmentary. Evidence of women in art is usually a male
depiction and therefore often idealized
We draw from predominantly female spaces such as houses, the
Forum, bedroom paintings, Temples, street graffiti, shops and workshops
. The limitations of such evidence lies in the fact that it is still largely
interpretive, coloured by the authors own context
An example is the misinterpretation of the painting of Terentius Neo and
his wife, assumed to be aristocrats because of the literate depiction with
stylus and book.
Other problematic areas are with prostitution, where occupations
associated with the serving of food and drink have been traditionally
associated with prostitution. These are currently being reinterpreted.The
historian is limited in that the female voice is a silent one.
Upper Class Women
In line with Roman women, provincial women were taught
to read and write. Sabina Poppaea, who became the wife
of Nero came from a Pompeian family
In Herculaneum, the wife and daughters of the pro consul
Nonius Balbus had statues exhibited in the Basilica
Upper class women also played a significant role in
religion. Eumachia and Mamia were both priestesses. The
funerary monument dedicated to Mamia reflected her
significant status in society.Although women were
forbidden to enter political life, they could use their wealth
through building and architecture to reflect their status and
identity.
Inscriptions as evidence for the role of women
Women were
subservient to the
paterfamilia
Eumachia, daughter of Lucius [Eumachius],
public priestess,
Religious roles
in her own name and that of her son, Marcus
Munistrius Fronto,
independent
built with her own funds the porch, covered
as self
passage, and collonade Architecture
promotion
and dedicated them to Concordia Augusta
[Peace] and to Pietas [Piety].
Women
could own
property
and be
independ
ently
wealthy
Political
promotion
Local elite expressed the
loyalty to the Imperial family
by imitation- see Livia
statue and dedication
Eumachia was priestess and prominent citizen of the city of
Pompeii. She was patroness of the guild of fullers (cleaners,
dyers, and clothing makers), one of the most influential tradeguilds of the city because of the importance of the wool
industry in Pompeii's economy. Although her ancestry was
humble, the fortune she inherited from her father, a brick
manufacturer, enabled her to marry into one of Pompeii's older
families. She provided the fullers with a large and beautiful
building which was probably used as the guild's headquarters.
Mamia- a Public priestess and woman of
status
Inscription from
a seat at the
tomb of the
public priestess
Mamia, Porta
Ercolano,
Pompeii
Tomb inscriptions
ILS 6373. Naevoleia L.l. Tyche for herself
and C. Munatius Faustus, Augustalis and
paganus [countryman?], for whom the
city council by public consent decreed a
bisellium [honorific seat] on account of
her/his merits. Naevoleia Tyche made
this monument during her lifetime for
her own freedmen and freedwomen and
those of C. Munatius Faustus.
Front of the tomb of Naevoleia Tyche,
with the inscription. The scene below the
epitaph presumably represents the
family's business activities. The figure
above is probably a funerary mask,
something which would normally be
associated with aristocrats rather than
ex-slaves like these.
Another scene from the tomb. It
probably represents the family's
involvement in overseas trade, although
some people have claimed that it
symbolizes the voyage to the after-life.
Tomb inscriptions give weight to
the importance of familial roles
for women.
“ Pomponia Decharcis, wife of Alleius Nobilis, mother of Alleius Maius”.
Nearly one third of the worshippers of the Cult of Isis, named in the
inscriptions are female. Wall paintings in Pompeii and
Herculaneum clearly show women participating in rituals. It is
thought that Isis was particularly appealing to women because of
the myths of Isis emphasizing her role as wife and mother
Representations of the ideal Roman Matrona
Initially assumed to be Proculus and his wife because of
the assumption of literacy, it is now believed to be the
portraits of the baker Terentius Neo and his wife.
Representations of Roman Beauty
jewelry and coins found with woman's
skeleton outside Pompeii
Business Women
Often in partnership with their husbands, women could
earn profits, run shops and engage in crafts and trades.
In Herculaneum women could engage in buying and
selling, but were not allowed to become money
lenders.
Julia Felix was a successful business woman in
Pompeii, using her extensive villa as guest
accommodations with its own private bathing
establishment.
Inscriptions concerning
property-owning women
ILS 5723. To let, on the property
of Julia Sp.f. Felix , a ladies' and
gentlemen's bathing
establishment (?) [balneum
Venerium et nongentum], bars,
lock-up shops, rooms. Five-year
lease from August 13th ....
The House of Julia Felix
Tomb inscriptions of priestesses
ILS 5053.1. Clodia A.f. sacerdos publica of
Ceres, by decree of the city council.
5053.2. Lassia M.f. sacerdos publica of
Ceres, by decree of the city council.
5053.5. Clodia A.f. (built) this monument at
her own expense for herself and her heirs.
6369. For Mamia P.f. sacerdos publica. The
burial place was given by decree of the city
council.
6370. Istacidia N.f. Rufilla sacerdos publica.
6371. Alleia daughter of Cn. Maius,
sacerdos publica of Venus and Ceres, by
decree of the city council at public expense.
Tradeswomen
Of somewhat lower status women worked independently in making and
mending clothes. They were also employed in the Fuller industry, both slave
and free.
Penelope Allison looks to the atrium house as a multipurpose space. Livy
describes women spinning in this central area and Virgil says children played
there. Originally interpreted as a formal greeting single purpose space, Allison,
has questioned this interpretation.
Wives of craftsmen and tradesmen would run the shop while their husbands
attended to other aspects of the business. A painting in the shop of M.
Veculius Verecundus, manufacture of cloth, shows his wife sitting at the
counter while a young man chooses a pair of slippers from the shelves.
Bars and Tavern Owners
Women could own and operate taverns, inns and bars, which also served as
food outlets
Graffiti advertisements tell us that Valeria Hedone was an innkeeper; “
Hedone says ‘ You can drink here for one as, if you give two, you will
drink better; if you give four, you will drink Falernian.’”
Women as Midwives
There is a substantial amount of written evidence which records the part
played by women in the medical profession. Their professional status was
recognized by law, and their fees were subject to regulation. Many women
worked as midwives, physicians or doctors, and, surprisingly, very few of
them were freeborn. There is even mention of a number of husband-andwife medical teams, of which the wife was essentially the midwife.
Pliny's descriptions of childbirth practices chiefly concern ways to hasten
and ease labor.” Boys, he says, are more easily delivered than
girls.(6) According to Pliny, fumigations with the fat from hyaena loins
produce immediate delivery for women in difficult labor; placing the right
foot of a hyaena on the woman results in an easy delivery, but the left foot
causes death.(7) A drink sprinkled with powdered sow's dung will relieve
the pains of labor, as will sow's milk mixed with honey wine.(8) Delivery
can also be eased by drinking goose semen mixed with water or "the
liquids that flow from a weasel's uterus through its genitals”
Working Women
Political Roles
It is worth noting that although women could not stand for
political office, 14.5 % of electoral graffiti are by women
urging the support of candidates. One elite woman ,
Taedia Secunda, declared her support for her grandson L
Popidius Secundus for the office of magistrate( aedile ) in
AD 79
Women in election graffiti
ILS 6408a. I beg you to make Pupius duumvir. Appuleia with her
neighbour Mustius (asks), and Narcissus asks you.
6414 [written on bakery (?) wall]. We beg you to make M. Casellius
and L. Albucius aediles. Statia and Petronia ask. Such citizens (would
be?) in the city forever.
6431a. I ask you to make A. Vettius Firmus aedile. He is worthy.
Caprasia asks with Nymphius, together with the neighbours. (We) ask
you to vote for him.
CIL iv 7863 [from a thermopolium]. (Make) C. Lollius Fuscus duumvir
for looking after the roads (and) the sacred (and) public buildings.
Asellina's (girls?) ask you, not without Zmyrina.
D'Avino, p.28. I beg you to make Cn. Helvius Sabinus aedile. I beg
you to make L. Ceius Secundus duumvir. Recepta (asks), not without
Talamus.
D'Avino, p.29. I beg you to make Ceius Secundus duumvir. Sutoria
Primigenia with her family asks. Are you asleep, Astylus?
Slave Women
This class had a wide range of duties, including personal
attendants, for the wealthy, household slaves who did cooking
and cleaning, nannies and wet nurses. Slave women who
earned their freedom could then own their own slaves.Slaves
could be freed by a brief ceremony called manumission.
Two wax tablets wrapped in cloth were found ,together with
some silver vessels in the furnace area of the Palaestra Baths.
They relate to a business deal between two women dating to
AD 61. A freedwoman Poppaea Note has borrowed money
from Dicidia Margaris.As security she has temporarily
transferred ownership of two of here slaves to her creditor.
The tablet implies that Poppaea did default on her payment
“ Poppaea Note, freedwoman of Priscus, has sworn that the
slaves Simplex and Petrinus are hers and that she owns them
and that these slaves are not pledged to anyone, nor does she
share them with anyone else………..”
EXCAVATIONS in Pompeii have unearthed fresh evidence for what may have
been an "upwardly mobile" caste of former female slaves, who instead of being
freed were "kept" as lovers by their masters in ancient Rome.
Archaeologists said the evidence was contained in a bag of sophisticated
jewellery that had come to light in a new dig. The jewellery was found with the
remains of a man and a woman who had been trying to escape from a hotel as
Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD.
Some were inscribed in a way that left little doubt that the couple were a master
(dominus) and his female slave (ancilla), turned-lover. "Dominus suae ancillae"
was the inscription on one gold bracelet in the form of a snake, which weighed
a pound and had diamonds for eyes. The collection of jewellery included a
similar bracelet, a gold-chain belt, rings, and a bracelet made of gold ball
bearings weighing nearly two pounds.
Prof Antonio De Simone, the archaeologist who found the couple's remains,
said: "The idea of a master giving presents to a female slave is entirely new. It
makes us think that in ancient Rome there were not only matrons and married
women, but also those who were favoured but not freed by their owners. This
would have represented an upward social step for a slave."
Political Roles
It is worth noting that although women could not stand for
political office, 14.5 % of electoral graffiti are by women
urging the support of candidates. One elite woman ,
Taedia Secunda, declared her support for her grandson L
Popidius Secundus for the office of magistrate( aedile ) in
AD 79
Prostitution( lupae )
Some women earned a living by prostitution. Early archaeologists
suggested that there were more than 30 brothels ( lupararian) but a
reassessment as identified only 9 buildings .
” My conclusion is that there is little archaeological or epigraphical
evidence that proves that hospitality businesses frequently doubled as
brothels, or that women associated with them were prostitutes.”
DeFelici. Roman Hospitality; The Professional women of Pompeii
. Prostitution was recognised as an occupation and full time prostitutes had
to be registered and pay tax.
“ Hermeros….here with Philiteros and Caphisus’
‘ Sollemnes, you….well
Evidence suggests that there were different types of prostitutes; slaves
freedwomen and foreign. Patrician and Equestrian women were forbidden
to become prostitutes. High class courtesans were kept by their lovers and
often lived in expensive homes
It is thought that Pompeii’s port function accounted for the thriving service
industry
Found in the Inn of Salvius
Foreign Women
We know from the names of women written in graffiti around the
town that Pompeii had a significant number of foreign women,
involved in trade. Freedwomen, from the East, frequently sold
luxury items or exotic merchandise, such as dyes and perfumes
Skeletal Evidence
Examine the work done by Sara
Bisel in Herculaneum and Estelle
Lazer in Pompeii. What evidence
does it provide about the lives of
women in these cities.
What limitations exist ?
Roles of
women
•priestesses played a civic and religious
role (Eumachia, Mamia); dedicated public
buildings
•property owners (Poppaea Sabina,
name inscribed on lead pipes)
•dedication of funerary monuments to
family members (husbands, children)
• Business; financial transactions:
landlords, waitresses, saleswomen, and
of course, prostitutes
•political supporters
Conclusions
Evidence from both written and archaeological sources suggest a
strong presence of women within the societies of Pompeii and
Herculaneum. Although largely interpretive, paintings, tomb
inscriptions and graffiti suggest that women , like their Roman
counterpart were active in their familial, economic , religious and
political roles.