SCIZOPHRENIA
• The most severe mental illness, characterized
by disturbances in thought, affect, &
perception.
• Personality is disintegrated & pt.'s functioning
deteriorates in all fields.
• Pt. becomes burden to his family and society.
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Etiology:
1- Genetic Factor:
• It is evident that there is a genetic
predisposition to this disorder.
• Children of schizophrenic parents are more
liable to develop schizophrenia
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• The following table shows the relative risk for
relatives or a schizophrenic patient:
• General population
1%
• One schizophrenic parent
12%
• Two Schizophrenic parents
40%
• One sibling with schizophrenia
8%
• Dizygotic twin with schizophrenia
12%
• Monozygotic twin with schizophrenia 47%
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2- Biologic Factors:
*Dopamine theory:
• The dopamine theory states that there is
hyperactivity of the dopamine systems in the
brains of schizophrenics.
• Dopamine blocking agents are effective in
treating schizophrenic symptoms.
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3- Psychosocial Factors:
*Psychoanalytic theory:
• There is a defect in ego organization, which
affects the interpretation of reality. The child is
unable to separate and progress beyond the
complete dependence on mother.
• The schizophrenic never attains object constancy
(object permanence), he is unable to achieve selfobject differentiation. Freud stated that
schizophrenia is a regression to primary
narcissism in which ego is disintegrated
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*The most acceptable theory is that
schizophrenia results from an interaction
of different biological and psychosocial
factors, but the exact cause is not known.
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CLINICAL FEATURES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA:
• It is important to remember that:
-No single symptom that diagnoses schizophrenia,
most symptoms can be found in other disorders.
• Symptoms in single pt. change from time to time.
• It is important to consider pt.’s intellectual
abilities & cultural background before describing
what he says or does as symptom of
schizophrenia.
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*PRE MORBID PRESONALITY:
• Pt.'s personality before onset of schizophrenia is
often strange & pt. is obedient & quiet.
• As an adolescent, pt. avoids competition in sports
and other activities, prefers to sit alone to watch
TV or has daydreaming.
• It is difficult to know the time of onset of
schizophrenia because symptoms develop slowly
over a long time.
• Prodromal stage is characterized by peculiar
behavior, abnormal affect & bizarre ideas, with
strange perceptual experiences.
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MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION
APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOR:
• Pt.'s behavior may be very strange; he may be
talkative and hyperactive or mute and very quiet.
• Catatonic excitement is used to describe a state
of intense disorganized hyperactivity.
• In catatonic stupor pt. seems completely lifeless
& may show signs of negativism, muteness and
automatic obedience.
• Pt. is withdrawn & shows lack of self-care &
hygiene.
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MOOD AND AFFECT:
• Affect is abnormal. It may show:
1. Restricted affective response: Pt. shows very
little affect, his face may show little change when
talking about different topics. Blunting and flat of
affect means absence of any affective response in
the facial expression, tone of voice or movements.
2. Inappropriate affect: Pt.'s affective response is
not going with his experience.
3. Ambivalence: Pt. shows contradicting affects to
the same experience, like feeling love and hate to
the same person at the same time.
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PERCEPTION:
1. Hallucinations:
• Auditory hallucinations are the most common
perceptual disturbance in schizophrenia.
• Usually they are voices that talk to pt. or comment on
his actions or thoughts.
• Visual hallucinations may occur in schizophrenia, but
should alert to possibility of organic cause.
• Tactile and other somatic hallucinations occur rarely,
they require investigation for possible organic cause.
2. Illusions:
• Illusions also occur in schizophrenia.
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THOUGHT DISTURBANCE:
*Delusions:
• In persecutory delusions: Beliefs that others are trying
to harm him or kill him, he may think that his family is
putting poison in his food and refuse to eat with them.
• Delusions of reference: Beliefs that others talk about
pt. (TV news about him or hearing his name in radio).
• Grandiose delusions: Beliefs of great abilities or wealth.
Pt. may think that he is a president or a prophet.
• Passivity delusions: Beliefs of being influenced by
others (others can read his thoughts or a computer is
directing his actions).
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*Lack of ego boundary:
• Pt. does not have a clear sense of where his
body and internal hallucination from external
perceptions.
• His control over his thought process may show
thought insertion or thought withdrawal; pt.
feels that others can put thoughts into his
head (or take), or read his thoughts.
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*Loose associations:
• Pt.’s speech is not coherent.
• Pt. moves from one subject to another with little
or no relation between the two.
*Flight of ideas:
• Rapid & continuous flow of ideas, with playing on
words, and constant shifting from one idea to
another.
*Neologism:
• A new language that can not be understood by
others.
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*Thought blocking:
• Sudden stop in process of thinking experienced
by pt. as if thoughts withdrawn from his head.
• Pt. may stop talking and does not return to
subject.
*Abstract thinking:
• Is abnormal; pt. cannot think in abstract terms.
• Difficult for him to interpret proverb, or find
similarities between objects.
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IMPULSE CONTROL:
• Pt. may have poor control over his actions.
• He may be aggressive or intrusive.
• Some pt.'s may commit homicide (killing others)
driven by their delusions. Others may commit
suicide.
ORLENTATION:
• Usually pt. is oriented to place, time & person.
This may be difficult to assess because of poor
cooperation from pt.
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MOMERY:
• Usually normal, but can be distorted by
delusional thinking (pt. remembers clearly that
he was dispelled from school, but may attribute
that to the teachers being against him).
JUDGMENT AND INSIGHT:
• Pts. have little or no insight into their condition.
Judgment is best assessed by observing pt. in
interview or from external sources.
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Course & prognosis of schizophrenia:
-Onset is either acute over a few days or gradual
over a few months.
Precipitating factors: may be present e.g. entering
college, marriage, traumatic life event.
Course: There is a deterioration over 5 years with
frequent remissions and exacerbation. Pt. does not
return to his level of functioning in remissions.
Prognosis: About 20-30 % of pts. may recover a
normal life, 40-60 % remain significantly impaired.
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Types of Schizophrenia:
1-Paranoid schizophrenia
-Results in less neurological and cognitive
impairment and a better prognosis for pt.
-In active phase: pt. is extremely ill & symptoms
may constitute a danger to self or others .
-Delusions: persecutory or grandiose and have a
coherent theme.
-Persecutory delusions may generate anxiety,
suspiciousness, anger, & violent behavior.
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-Auditory hallucinations are common and related to
the delusionary theme.
-Interaction with others: rigid, intense &
controlled .
-To diagnose paranoid schizophrenia it must have
delusion and hallucinations.
-Other diagnostic criteria: disorganized behaviors.
-Delusions & hallucinations must be present for
significant portion of time, over period of 1 month.
-Paranoid schizophrenia usually has a sudden onset,
sometimes triggered by severe stresses.
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Prognosis
-The course is varied but tends to be more
hopeful than courses of other subtypes (pt.'s
ego is stronger than other types).
-It is the most responsive schizophrenia to
proper treatment and the most likely to qualify
for course of a single episode in full remission.
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2-Disorganized Schizophrenia
-Formerly known as hebephrenic schizophrenia.
-Silly & childish affect with severe personality disintegration.
-Speech is disorganized and may include word salad.
-Communication includes both real and imaginary words in
no logical or incoherent speech & clanging (rhyming).
-Behavior is odd: grimacing, grunting, sniffing, posturing,
rocking, stereotyped behaviors and uninhibited sex behaviors
such as masturbating in public.
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-Socially, the client is withdrawn and inept.
-Many cognitive & psychomotor defects:
concrete thinking, poor interpretation & use of
language, inability to abstract, prelogical
thought that is associated with “pleasure
principle” characteristic of Id portion of
personality, & poor coordination.
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-Poor personal grooming: often unable to complete
activities of daily living without constant structural
reminders, because behavior is aimless and without
goal.
-Development seems to have been impaired and held to
about the age of seven or eight .
Prognosis
-Poor, stemming from early pre-morbid history of
impaired adjustment that continues after active phase of
disorder.
-Pt. may or may not have hallucinating or delusion but if
they exist, they are disorganized and fragmented.
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3-Catatonic schizophrenia:
-Has intense psychomotor disturbance. This
could be stupor (psychomotor retardation) or
excitement (psychomotor excitation).
-Manifestations of psychomotor disturbance
include posturing immobility, catalepsy (wax
flexibility), mutism, and negativism .
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-There may be autonomic obedience on one
hand, & excessive & purposeless movement on
other hand, and symptoms include :
-Echopraxia (imitating the movement of others),
Echolaila (repeating what was said by another),
grimacing, and stereotyped movement .
-Often there is rapid alteration between these
extremes.
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-The onset of catatonic schizophrenia often
occurs with dramatic suddenness.
-Catatonic stupor may be preceded by an earlier
withdraw carried to the extremes.
-It reflects pt.'s reduced neurological ability to
filter out stimuli.
-No significant difference of age & sex .
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-When excitement: Needs close watch to
prevent harm to self and others.
-When stuporous state: Disorder can be lifethreatening because pt. approaches a vegetative
condition, will not eat & in danger of
malnutrition or even starvation.
-Other complications: pressure sores from lack
of mobility or strange posturing, constipation, or
even severe pneumonia in older pts.
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-Delusions often persist throughout withdrawn
state.
Example: Pt. may believe that he has to hold his
hand out flat in front of him because forces of
good and evil are warring on the palm of his
hand & he will upset the balance of good and
evil if he moves his hand .
-Pt. seems not to be attending to environment
around him, when he later returns to a normal
state of consciousness he will remember in
detail what has occurred.
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Prognosis:
Varies, depending on the age of onset, which is
often in the early 20s to 30s .
-It tends to begin with an acute episode.
-If pt. has developed a good support system,
before illness he will probably recover from
acute phase & have partial or complete
remission.
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4-Undifferentiated schizophrenia
-It doesn’t clearly meet the criteria necessary for
a diagnoses in other types of schizophrenia, has
some aspects of each type.
-Psychotic manifestations are extreme:
fragmented delusions, vague hallucinations,
bizarre & disorganized behavior, disorientation
& incoherence.
-Affect: inappropriate rather than flat &
catatonic symptoms are not present.
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-Onset can be acute, with excited behaviors such
as aggressive hitting or biting or pt. may have
behavior that no longer fit a special type
(mixture).
-Usually the pre-dromal symptoms have
developed over a period of years.
-Growth and development milestones may have
been delayed .
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-Thought processes are fragmented and have a high
fantasy.
-Pt. has few or no friends, & family relationships are
strained because of odd & restless behaviors .
-Dress and grooming are careless, & pt. seems
bored with life .
-Sleep patterns are disturbed by nightmares and
early morning awakening.
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Prognosis
-Generally poor.
-The course is usually chronic one .
-There are periods of exacerbation and
remission.
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5- Residual Schizophrenia
-If an individual had at least one acute episode
of schizophrenia and is now free of prominent
positive symptoms but has some negative
symptoms, he is diagnosed as suffering from
residual schizophrenia.
-In some clients, this pattern may persist for
years, with or without exacerbation.
-In others, it seems to taper down to a complete
remission.
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Diagnostic criteria:
-Absence of prominent delusions, hallucinations,
disorganized speech, & disorganized or catatonic
behavior.
-Continuing evidence of presence of negative symptoms
or attenuated positive symptoms.
-Positive symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, Bizarre
dress & behavior, thought disorganization, aggression,
agitated behavior, pressured speech, suicidal ideation.
-Negatives symptoms: Flat or inappropriate affect, poor
eye contact, Anhedonia attitude, withdrawal, poor
grooming and hygiene, lack of expressive gestures,
apathy, inattentiveness.
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Prognosis:
-Varied and unpredictable.
-Depends largely on pre-morbid history &
adequacy of support systems.
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MANAGEMENT OF SCHIZOPHRENLA
1. Hospitalization:
-Indicated in acute stage of disorder.
-Pt. may be aggressive or self-destructive.
-Pt. may have to be restrained.
2. Medications:
-Neuroleptics:
-Also called anti-psychotic or major tranquilizers.
-Used to treat psychotic symptoms.
-Dose is determined by pt.'s response & presence of side
effects.
-They do not treat schizophrenia, but symptoms.
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A-Chlorpromazine (Largactil):
-Drug of choice in acute stage.
-Has a sedative effect in addition to antipsychotic effect.
-Present in oral form, IM & IV preparation.
-Acts by blocking dopamine receptors.
-Side effects: extra pyramidal movement,
hypotension & anti-cholinergic effects.
-Dose: 50-1200 mg daily.
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B-Haloperidol (Haldol):
-Potent blocker of dopamine receptors.
-Produces more extra pyramidal & less sedation.
-Can be used in acute stage, but mainly for
maintenance in chronic stage.
-Dose: 2-100 mg. daily.
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Side effects of neuroleptics:
A-Acute dystonia:
-Involuntary muscle contraction particularly of jaw & neck
or external ocular muscles.
-Treated by IV Anticholinergic drug e.g. benztropine.
B-Parkinsonian syndrome:
-Includes: tremor, rigidity & bradykinesia.
C-Akathesia:
-Subjective sense of restlessness.
-Pt. keeps moving here & there.
-Treated by benzodiazepines.
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D-Tardive dyskinesia:
-A disorder that involves involuntary movements,
especially of lower face.
-Symptoms include: Facial grimacing, finger
movement, jaw swinging, repetitive chewing, &
tongue thrusting.
-The worst side effects of neuroleptics.
-Occurs after prolonged use of neuroleptics.
-It is resistant to treatment.
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3. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT):
-Less effective than neuroleptics.
-Indicated in catatonic pts. or pts. who can not take meds.
4. Psychosocial treatment:
-Behavioral, occupational & group therapy may be used
according to needs & functional status of pt.
- Supportive psychotherapy is employed & depends on
establishing a relationship with pt. to make a Rx alliance.
-Very difficult in regressed, aggressive or suspicious pts.
-Therapist must be flexible and take into account pt.'s
fear of intimacy & close relationships.
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5. Community care:
-Services are provided to pt. & his family on local basis.
-Service is provided by a team of professionals working
in community centers that are near pt.'s home, & pt.
does not have to be hospitalized.
-Family is involved in management plan and care for pt.
-Other services can be approached to provide medical,
rehabilitation, &recreational needs.
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OTHER PSYCHOTIC DISORDER
1. Brief psychotic disorder
-Psychotic symptoms with acute onset for few
hour & not exceeding one month , then person
is back to his normal vocational & social
performance.
-Usually symptoms appear after stressful events.
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Diagnosis
-Presence of one or more of the following:
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized behavior,
speech disturbance.
-Period of disorder is not less than 1 day and not
more than 1 month then pt. will be back as normal
as before.
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Prognosis
-Disorder occurs in adolescence or early adulthood
with acute onset of psychotic symptoms after few
hours of stressful events.
-Psychotic symptoms disappear in less than 1
month.
-Psychotic symptoms may be followed by symptoms
of depression or lack of self-confidence.
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Treatment
-Admission may be needed if symptoms are
severe or for confirmed diagnoses.
-Drug therapy & psychotherapy to help pt. to get
rid of immature defense mechanisms & to
increase his self-esteem & self-concept.
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2. Schizophreniform Disorder
-More common in adolescence and early adulthood.
-Similar to Schizophrenia in symptoms but differs in
period (not more than 6 months), then pt. recovers &
will be back to same vocational & social performance.
-Any pt. has symptoms of Schizophrenia & not reach 6
month period, primarily diagnosed as
(Schizophreniform disorder) & when exceeds 6 months
will be diagnosed as Schizophrenia.
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Prognosis
- Mostly, onset is acute & these psychotic symptoms
cause disturbance in vocational & social
performance, because prognosis is improvement
always.
-During onset, there is danger on pt. from suicide
during acute symptoms or depression following
psychotic symptom.
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Treatment
-Admission maybe needed especially for
completion of diagnostic process or performing
some Rx, or to protect pt. from himself.
-ECT maybe needed especially in catatonic
symptoms.
-Psychotherapy is very important in helping them in
social & psychological adjustment after experience
of psychoses..
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3. Schizoaffective Disorder
-Symptoms of schizophrenia are mixed with mood
symptoms.
-If depression symptoms are present: schizodepressive disorder.
-If mania symptoms are present: schizo-manic
disorder.
-This diagnosis increases when specialist is not sure
of diagnosis.
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Prognosis
-Disorder starts in early adulthood & tends to
become chronic.
Treatment
-Admission of pt. to hospital is needed with giving
drugs (anti-depression , anti-mania) in addition to
psycho & social therapy.
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4. Delusional disorders (paranoia) (paraphrenia)
-Disorder in which organized delusions dominate
without physical causes & symptoms of mood
disorder or schizophrenia are not present.
-Affect is appropriate to contents of delusions and
personality of pt. is intact to a great degree &
testing reality is nearly normal.
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A- Erotomania:
-The delusion that dominates on pt. that he is
loved by another one a romantic love to a
degree of spiritual integration and the “another
one” is a famous one or the boss in the work.
-Usually pt. is female.
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B- Grandiose:
-Pt. believes that he is great but unknown or he
discovered important discoveries.
-The content of delusion could be religious by which
pt. controls group of people & becomes their
leader.
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C- Jealousy:
-Pt. is convinced that his wife is unfaithful & he is
collecting even weak evidence to prove her
unfaithfulness & he strengthens his delusion by
these evidences.
- Usually he acts abnormally under effect of
delusions so he confronts his wife & may jail her at
home & prevent her leaving alone or to observe &
follow her secretly & usually he beats her.
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D-Persecutory:
-The most common type.
-Pt. believes that others are observing him, following
him & trying to put poison for him or to prevent him
from achieving his goals, etc….
-Usually easy to get angry, aggressive against people.
-May go to court for several complains against his
“proposed” enemies.
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E- Somatic type:
-Occurs in different ways.
-Most common type that pt. is convinced that a bad
odor is coming out from his skin, mouth or having
skin contamination or a part of his body is ugly or
part of his body is not working (as large intestine).
-Discovered when they go to physician or plastic
surgeon to correct part of body that is ugly!, so
physician sends him to psychologist or psychiatrist.
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Prognoses:
-Usually starts at middle age (25-40).
-May become chronic especially persecutory type.
-Rarely that prevents the daily performance of pt.
-Pt. & his working ability is not affected even when
disorder becomes chronic.
-Social & marital relationships are usually affected,
but in general pts. are normal in appearance,
behavior if no relation with their delusions.
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5. Shared psychotic disorder
- Occurs to pt. as a result of his strong relations
with another one who has originally these
psychotic symptoms or prominent delusions.
-Usually this disorder occurs after a period of
living together & isolation from people & lack of
communication with others.
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Prognosis:
-Usually it is chronic and starts in any age.
-Percentage of recovery is 10-40%.
Treatment:
-It is necessary to separate them.
-Medication if needed.
-Psychotherapy
-Connecting pts. with external environment & world
around them.
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6. Post-Partum Psychoses
-Early symptoms (3rd day of delivery) include:
insomnia, instability, feelings of exhaustion, mood
swinging & attacks of crying.
-Late symptom include: Suspicion, lack of
coordinated thinking, preoccupation with thoughts
as that she is not married & she is still virgin.
-Delusions are similar to feelings of hate toward her
baby and may order her to kill him.
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Prognosis
-Pt. may become dangerous on self or baby based
on contents of hallucinations & agitation.
-Prognosis depends on personality integration &
adjustment before setting disorder in addition to
family association that support pt. & helps in
reaching good prognoses.
-Next delivery usually will be accompanied with
another attack.
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Treatment
-Usually treatment especially drugs.
-Mother will be given chance to communicate with
her baby if she wishes that but under observation.
-Psychotherapy is important especially after
finishing acute stage of psychotic symptoms.
-Psychotherapy focuses on inner conflict & helping
mother to accept role of motherhood & asking
husband & surrounded people to decrease feelings
of stress.
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